Wholly microfabricated biosensors and process for the manufacture and use thereof

ABSTRACT

An efficient method for the microfabrication of electronic devices which have been adapted for the analyses of biologically significant analyte species is described. The techniques of the present invention allow for close control over the dimensional features of the various components and layers established on a suitable substrate. Such control extends to those parts of the devices which incorporate the biological components which enable these devices to function as biological sensors. The materials and methods disclosed herein thus provide an effective means for the mass production of uniform wholly microfabricated biosensors. Various embodiments of the devices themselves are described herein which are especially suited for real time analyses of biological samples in a clinical setting. In particular, the present invention describes assays which can be performed using certain ligand/ligand receptor-based biosensor embodiments. The present invention also discloses a novel method for the electrochemical detection of particular analyte species of biological and physiological significance using an substrate/label signal generating pair which produces a change in the concentration of electroactive species selected from the group consisting of dioxygen and hydrogen peroxide.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present application is a continuation-in-part of prior co-pendingU.S. application Ser. No. 07/381,223, filed Jul. 13, 1989, now abandonedwhich, in turn is a continuation-in-part of prior co-pending U.S.application Ser. No. 07/270,171, filed Nov. 14, 1988, now abandoned. Thedisclosures of both prior applications are incorporated by referenceherein.

1. FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to wholly microfabricated biosensors, methods andmaterials for the mass production thereof, and their use in thedetermination of the presence and/or concentration of a variety ofselected analyte species. In particular, the integrated biosensors ofthe present invention may be manufactured by a process which allows theincorporation of a variety of bioactive molecules, which bioactivemolecules provide the basis of the analytical technique, through the useof materials which are compatible with the bioactive molecules and whichmaterials have been especially adapted for that purpose. The integratedbiosensors of the instant invention are also fully compatible withundiluted biological fluids and may be utilized in a wide range ofmedical, as well as nonmedical, applications.

More particularly, this invention relates to novel electrochemical assayprocedures and to novel wholly microfabricated biosensors useful indetermining the presence and/or concentration of biological species(analytes) of interest. The invention also relates to the novel use of anon-electroactive substrate (hereinafter the "substrate") that does notundergo detectable oxidation or reduction at an electrode's operatingpotential, but which substrate undergoes a reaction with a substrateconverter which gives rise to changes in the concentration of detectableelectroactive species, these changes are measured and related to theconcentration of the biological species of interest. Additionally, theinvention pertains to methods for the microfabrication of the biosensor.

The assay procedures and biosensor of this invention are alsoexemplified as being useful in effecting immunoassays. Such immunoassaysare also exemplified wherein the substrate converter is an enzyme(alkaline phosphatase) that reacts with the substrate(5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoxyl phosphate) to produce changes in theconcentration of electroactive species (dioxygen and hydrogen peroxide)which are electrochemically detected with the biosensor, an immunosensorin this instance. Both sandwich and competitive assays can be effectedusing the procedures and biosensor of the present invention. In theseassays, one embodiment of the biosensor comprises a base sensorcomprising a catalytic electrode and optional reference electrode, anadhesion promoter layer overlaid on the biosensor, and a bioactive layerthat is covalently immobilized on the adhesion promoter layer, whichbioactive layer is a receptor of the immunological analyte of interest.

2. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Great effort has been expended in the development of chemical sensorswhich can measure the presence and/or concentration of chemical speciesin blood or other biological fluids. These sensors can bemacroelectrodes (nonmicrofabricated) of the everyday bench top varietyfor measuring the pH of samples, and they may sometimes take the form ofmicroelectrodes suitable for implantation within the body of a subject.Such devices are presently made individually or in certain cases by acombination of hand assembly and manufacturing methods which may includethe thin-film and photoresist techniques currently used to manufactureintegrated circuits (See, for example, Pace, S., Sensors and Actuators1982, 1, 475; Zemel, J. N., U.S. Pat. No. 4,302,530 in which isdisclosed a method for fabricating a "substance-sensitive"photodefinable layer over semiconductor devices, especiallyion-selective field effect transistors (ISFET)). In spite of thisconsiderable and continuous effort, sensors based upon this ISFETtechnology have not become common articles of commerce. The fact is thatwholly microfabricated biosensors, that is, sensors which are uniformlymass produced solely by thin-film techniques and the micromanufacturingmethods, useful in the clinical setting and adaptable to the detectionand measurement of a whole host of chemical and biological species, havenot been manufactured successfully.

It is apparent that the degree of complexity involved with the massproduction of commercially viable biosensors is much more formidablethan even those persons of ordinary skill in the art once perceived. Ofmajor concern is the compatibility of inherently harsh physical andchemical processes, associated with existing semiconductor manufacturingmethods, with sensitive organic compounds and labile biologically activemolecules which comprise part of a functioning biological sensor. Anarticle by Eleccion (Eleccion, M. Electronics 1986, Jun. 2, 26-30)describes the current state of affairs with regard to microsensors andmakes brief references to active areas of research including thedetection of specific ions, gases, and biological materials. Progress inthe area of field effect transistors (FETs) is noted and problems andlimitations with present manufacturing methods are discussed.

Numerous other review articles describe a variety of electrochemicaldevices including ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) and ISFETs whichincorporate enzymes or immunoactive species (See, for example,Pinkerton, T. C. and Lawson, B. L. Clin. Chem. 1982, 28(9), 1946-1955;Lowe, C. R. Trends in Biotech. 1984, 2(3), 59-65; Koryta, J.Electrochim. Acta 1986, 31(5), 515-520; DeYoung, H. G. High Tech. 1983,Nov., 41-50: Davis, G. Biosensors 1986, 2, 101-124 and references citedtherein). Also, the general principles of operation of enzyme-basedsensors have been reviewed (See, Carr, P. W. and Bowers, L. D.Immobilized Enzymes in Analytical and Clinical Chemistry.Wiley-Interscience (1980). Various mathematical models of operation havebeen examined, including the external mass-transfer model by Racine, P.and Mindt, W. Experientia Suppl. 1971, 18, 525. Significant problems andlimitations in the fabrication of these devices remain unconquered,however, especially with regard to the fabrication of sensors intendedfor the analysis of nonionic species. The mass production of biosensorsbased upon ion-species. selective electrodes (ISEs) would beparticularly useful as these sensors can be adapted easily for theanalysis both of ionic as well as uncharged analyte species.

It is also important to note that in current clinical settings medicalpractitioners commonly request that analyses of one or more componentsof a complex biological fluid such as whole blood. Currently, suchanalyses require a certain amount of processing of the whole blood, suchas filtration and centrifugation, to avoid contamination of theinstruments or to simplify subsequent measurements. Frequently, bloodsamples are sent to a remote central facility where the analyses areperformed. Patients are thus deprived of valuable information which, inmost cases, is not available for hours, sometimes days. Clearly,substantial advantages cam be envisaged if analyses on undiluted samplescan be carried out and if instruments or sensors can be produced whichcan perform real-time measurements.

2.1. REPRESENTATIVE NONMICROFABRICATED ELECTRODES

It should be pointed out that many glucose sensors have been constructedusing nonmicrofabricated or "macro" electrodes (See, for example,Fischer, U. and Abel, P., Transactions of the American Society ofArtificial Internal Organs 1982, 28, 245-248; Rehwald, W., PflugersArchiv 1984, 400, 348-402; Gough, D. A., U.S. Pat. No. 4,484,987; Abe,H. et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,515,584; Lunkska, E., U.S. Pat. No.4,679,562; and Skelly, P., UK Patent Application 2,194,843). However, noaspect of thin-film processing is described in the manufacturingprocesses disclosed by the references cited above.

The combination of a layer containing the enzyme urease and an ammoniumion-selective electrode or an ammonia gas sensing electrode is known inthe art. A recent example of such a diagnostic system is described byConover, G., et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 4,713,165. In this system, anitrocellulose membrane is immersed in a solution of the enzyme ureasewhich is absorbed into the membrane. This enzyme-containing membrane, inits dessicated state, is then mounted onto the surface of an ammoniumISE. The resulting macroelectrode device is used to perform a blood ureanitrogen (BUN) measurement in biological fluids, such as serum, plasma,blood, and the like.

Another illustrative example of the earlier approaches to themanufacture of urea sensors is described by Williams in U.S. Pat. No.3,776,819. Similar to the previous reference, a urease layer is coatedover a cation-sensitive electrode, which layer may comprise urease andgelatin, fibrin, or filter paper pulp. An outer semipermeable membranemade from collodion (a cellulosic material) or cellophane is common,also.

2.2. PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS AT MASS PRODUCTION

While the unit cell of a base sensor, typically an electrode, can beduplicated on a planar surface such as a silicon wafer (See, Bergveld,P., IEEE Transactions of Biomedical Engineering BME 1972, 19, 342-51), aviable method for the deposition of a complex set of layers whichconfers selectivity and sensitivity to the base sensor has not beendemonstrated or shown to be fully compatible with reported integratedcircuit processing techniques. Such complex layers would containrelatively labile biological molecules such as ionophores, enzymes,antibodies, antigens or fragments thereof and are, in general, weak andsensitive to mechanical agitation. Although such layers may be appliedonto a wafer, preventing their inactivation and/or destruction due tofurther processing steps is not readily achieved because such processingcommonly includes exposing the wafer to organic chemicals, strong acidsand bases, heat, or subjecting the wafer to mechanical agitation,dicing, or scribing, usually accompanied by wash steps which employlow-pressure water-jets.

To prevent the destruction of these fragile layers, it has been a commonpractice in the prior art to dice or cut the semiconductor wafer intoindividual base sensors before the biolayers are established. Anyadditional packaging (e.g., wire bonding the sensor to a connector,encapsulating the device to provide adequate passivation) is alsoperformed prior to applying the biologically active layers. Suchcomplete devices are, therefore, produced only partially in a mannerwhich is compatible with automated mass production methods. For example,the enzyme urease has been deposited onto the gate of a singlepre-encapsulated ion-selective field effect transistor (ISFET) (Karube,I. et al., Analytica Chimica Acta 1986, 185, 195-200).

European Patent Application No. 0 012 035 provides ample discussionregarding the deficiencies of current FET devices, foremost of which istheir limited applicability to the analysis of nonionic species. In anattempt to combine electrochemistry and semiconductor technology,miniaturized multiple sensors are fabricated on a single chip. Theutility of this reference is limited, however, because the disclosureonly speaks in general terms and contains no enabling description of thecritical biolayers and protective barriers which are critical to thesuccessful microfabrication of functional biosensors. In fact, onlymaterials such as cellulose and a poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) layercontaining valinomycin (sensitive to potassium ions) or nonactin(sensitive to ammonium ions) are specifically disclosed, and thedeficiencies of these materials have been known in the biosensor art forsometime. Representative articles on the subject of PVC membranes andthe like for use in ISEs abound and include: Davies, D. G. et al.Analyst 1988, 113, 497-500; Morf, W. E. Studies in Analytical Chemistry,Punger, E. et al. (Eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam (1981) p. 264; Ammann, D.Ion-Selective Microelectrodes, Springer (1986); Oesch, U. et al. Clin.Chem. 1986, 32. 1448; Oggenfuss, P. et al. Analytica Chim. Acta 1986,180, 299; Thomas J. D. R. Ibid. 1986, 289; and Thomas, J. D. R. J. Chem.Soc. Faraday Trans. I 1986, 82, 1135.

Also, certain Japanese publications merit some discussion. JapaneseApplication No. 61-234349 describes a FET semiconductor biosensor coatedwith a solution of enzyme and a crosslinking agent to provide acrosslinked layer over the entire semiconductor. Separate applicationsof commonly used photoresist materials are then required to protectdesired areas from a subsequent treatment of protease. Reliance onenzymatic digestion of undesired protein layers is expected to giveunreliable and unsuitable dimensional control. Precise dimensionalcontrol is an important consideration in the mass production ofmicrostructures. Japanese Application No. 61-283862 discloses aprocedure for fixing an enzyme membrane by applying a polymer solutioncontaining an enzyme on a solid surface, drying, applying a crosslinkingagent to the resulting film through a mask, and removing noncrosslinkedportions of said film. Again, such a technique fails to take advantageof standard photoresist technology and can only lead to a poorlyresolved pattern. Another reference, Japanese Application No. 61-254845employs the typical approach of immersing sensor elements inenzymecontaining solutions and then selectively inactivating themembranes.

2.2.1. PHOTOPATTERNING METHODS

The use of photosensitive synthetic polymers to provide patternedmembranes is known. For instance, glucose oxidase has been mixed with aphotosensitive synthetic polymer mixture consisting of poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) and 2,5-bis(4'-azo-2'-sulfobenzal)cyclopentanone(BASC) (See, Hanazato, Y. et al. Anal. Chim. Acta 1987, 193, 87;Hanazato, Y. et al. in European Patent Application No. 0 228 259). Theresulting mixture was then used to establish a patterned membrane on asingle ISFET device. Equal parts of glucose oxidase and bovine serumalbumin (BSA) were used in the mixture which was irradiated anddeveloped using aqueous 1-3% glutaraldehyde. In this system, in whichthe matrix is a synthetic photosensitive polymer, the authors discuss anumber of unsolved problems including saturation of the sensor responseat concentrations of glucose above about 3 mM and poor long termstability probably caused by enzyme leakage or degradation in thematrix.

A system similar to that described above has been devised for applyingthe enzymes glucose oxidase and urease onto adjacent ISFET gates using aphotosensitive synthetic polymer consisting of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)and styrylpyridinium or stilbazolium salt (See, Takatsu, I. andMoriizumi, T. in Sensors and Actuators 1987, 11, 309; Ichimura, K. U.S.Pat. No. 4,272,620). Also, Moriizumi, T. and Miyahara, Y. in Sensors andActuators 1985, 7, 1 and in an article published in Proceedings, Int'lConf. on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, 1985, 148, describe the useof these photosensitive PVA membranes in methods which includespin-coating and injection into micro pools using a microsyringe. Thepoor long-term stability of the ISFET devices obtained with thespin-coated photopatterned PVA membranes was again acknowledged. Thelong-term sensitivity of the micro injected layers tended to be greaterdue partly to the greater thickness of these layers and thecorrespondingly greater number of enzyme molecules remaining therein.However, in order to form the micro pools, into which the PVA mixturesare injected, a second photosensitive synthetic dry film must first belaminated onto the ISFET, irradiated, and developed to give the framedstructures.

Other references exist which deal with the immobilization of urease ontoelectrochemical devices for performing a diagnostic test. A few of thesemethods involve pseudo-photolithographic procedures by which the enzymeis incorporated prior to or after the formation of the polymer layer(See, for example, Moriizumi, T. et al. in Sensors and Actuators 1986,9, 373; Kimura, J. et al. in Proceedings, Int'l. Conf. on Solid-StateSensors and Actuators, 1985, 152; and Japanese Patent Nos. 56-115950 and62-263457). These methods as described still fall far short of a viablemicrofabrication process.

Published Japanese Patent Application No. 62-235556 discloses a singlesensor having three anodes and a common cathode. The sensor is made withthe aid of azo-group-containing PVA, as the photo-bridged polymer.Glucose oxidase, galactose oxidase, L-amino acid oxidase and alcoholoxidase are among the enzymes claimed to be immoblized. No descriptionis included which suggests the use of any material other than syntheticphotosensitive polymers as the immobilization matrix. Furthermore, anyteaching with respect to the manufacture of hundreds of identicalreliable biosensors on a single wafer is not apparent.

2.2.2. SCREEN PRINTING METHODS

Screen printing of chemically sensitive materials as a step in a processfor the mass production of chemical sensors has focused mainly on thedeposited inorganic ceramic materials contained in certain organicbinders. For example, Oyabu, T. et al., in J. Appl. Phys. 1982, 53(11),7125, describe the preparation of thick film gas sensors using a tinoxide paste and a screen printing method. The process includes a hightemperature calcination step which is obviously not compatible withrelatively fragile liquid membrane electrodes or enzyme-based sensors.Also, Cauhape, J. S. and co-workers, in Sensors and Actuators 1988, 15,399, discuss the effect of mineral binders on the properties ofscreen-printed layers of semiconductor oxides. U.S. Pat. No. 4,216,245,granted to Johnson, L. C., discloses a method for making printed reagenttest devices using an offset or silk-screen dot printing method.

2.2.3. INK JET METHODS

Published Japanese Patent Application No. 62-223557 discloses a meansfor manufacturing an array of different enzyme layers on an integrtedISFET device. A hydrophilic porous film is established over the gate onthe ISFET and then an ink jet nozzle is used to deposit enzyme onto thefilm. This process utilizes spray type technology with the fluid dropbeing first electrically charged and then fired from the nozzle. In thissystem the nozzle, fluid drop, and substrate surface are never in acontiguous physical contact. The diameter of the drops range from 20 to100 micrometers. Also, published Japanese Patent Application No.59-24244 discloses a similar membrane deposition process based on inkjet nozzle technology.

2.2.4. MICROSYRINGE METHODS

As already mentioned briefly, above, Moriizumi and Miyahara haveemployed microsyringe methods to inject synthetic polymer/enzymemixtures into the gate regions of ISFET devices. These previouslydescribed techniques rely on ditches or pools to confine the dispensedfluid within the area of interest. In the article by Kimura andco-workers (Proceedings, Int'l Conf. on Solid-State Sensors andActuators, 1985, 152, above), ISFET devices are described in whichvarious membrane compositions are deposited with the aid of amicrosyringe. Again, a thick film resist polymer must be employed todelineate the area about the gate region of the ISFET device. In thismanner, four types of membranes are applied and made separate from oneanother. No consideration is given to the volumetric profile of the drop(although a droplet value of 0.03 μL is given), its surface tension orthe free energy of the surface of the device. Also, it is interesting tonote that the injected enzyme (e.g., urease or glucose oxidase)solutions, which include a small amount of BSA, are immobilized withinthe gate region by the subsequent addition of a suitable amount ofconventional glutaraldehyde solution.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,549,951 granted to Knudson, M. B. et al. discusses thecriticality of the shape and dimension of the ionophore layer but offersno insight for controlling these parameters. This reference teaches theuse of a moat, carved around the perimeter of the electrode, to confinethe membrane to that area. Some ion-sensitive membrane formulations aredescribed.

Miyagi, H. et al., in articles which appeared in Technology ResearchReport of the Institute of Electronics and Communication Engineers ofJapan 1986, 85(304), 31 and 1985 Pittsburgh Conference, 1058, describetwo membrane deposition methods for ISFET devices: a screen printingmethod and a microsyringe method. The first employed a fine silicapowder additive as a viscosity controlling agent and the secondtechnique once again required a framed structure to hold in the membranecasting solution which was "poured into the frame with a microsyringe."

In a somewhat related method, Bousse, L. J. et al., in the Proceedingsof the Second Int'l Meeting on Chemical Sensors 1986, 499, describe alamination process in Which a glass wafer is joined to a silicon waferby anodic bonding. The bonding is carried out such that a chamber isformed between the two wafers, the floor of which holds anelectrochemical transducer. A laser is then used to drill holes throughthe ceiling of the chamber. Liquid membrane material is then introducedinto the chamber, over the transducer, by applying a coat of the liquidmembrane, placing the laminated wafer into a partially evacuated belljar, and then venting the assembly to the atmosphere (thus forcing theliquid membrane material into the evacuated chamber).

It should be apparent that existing techniques for the uniformmicrofabrication of an array of chemical sensors are wholly inadequateand provide devices with specifications which are decidedlyunsatisfactory. Furthermore, what methods exist have been developedmostly for application with ISFET devices. Unfortunately, ISFET andCHEMFET devices will always be plagued with disadvantages which arepresent intrinsically, such as their limitation to the detection ofcharged species only (See, for example, the review article by Flanagan,M. T. et al. in Anal. Chim. Acta 1988, 213, 23). The manufacture ofminiaturized amperometric devices is even less established.

2.3. SILANE REAGENTS AND PERMSELECTIVE LAYERS

The use of silane coupling reagents, especially those of the formulaR'Si(OR)₃ in which R' is typically an aliphatic group with a terminalamine and R is a lower alkyl group, to attach a macromolecule covalentlyto a solid support has been known for some time. For example, an articleby Weetall, H. H. in Methods in Enzymology 1976, 44, 134-139, recommendsheating the silane coupling agent to 115° C. to promote the condensationof the agent with hydroxyl groups present on the surface of the solidsupport. A chemically modified platinum electrode has been described inwhich γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane and glutaraldehyde were used in astep-wise process to attach and to co-crosslink bovine serum albumin(BSA) and glucose oxidase (GOX) to the platinum surface (Yao, T.Analytica Chim. Acta 1983, 148, 27-33). These references do not containany teaching that silane coupling reagents can be used for any otherfunction besides promoting adhesion of overlaid materials or acting as acovalent anchoring agent.

Fujihara and co-workers, in J. Electroanalytical Chem. 1985, 195,197-201, describes the use of a toluene solution ofn-dodecyltriethoxysilane as a means for blocking the active sites of acatalytic gold electrode surface toward the reduction of hydrogenperoxide. The preparation of a permselective layer of variable thicknessand its use to screen out undesired electroactive species whilemaintaining the high catalytic activity of the electrode surface are notdisclosed or suggested.

Two published Japanese Patent Applications refer to the establishment ofselective layers on non-microfabricated electrodes. Japanese ApplicationNo. 62-261952 describes the use of certain silane compounds, for theformation of a silicon layer which excludes the passage of uric andascorbic acids but allows the permeation of hydrogen peroxide.Application No. JP 63-101743, pertains to a hydrogen peroxidepermselective film which is derived from a high polymer film ofpoly(allylamine) crosslinked by the action of a suitable chemical agent.None of the references cited above discloses patterned permselectivesilane layers established on microfabricated devices.

2.4. FILM-FORMING LATICES

Particle latex materials and the distinct "film-forming" latices are oldmaterials. Methods for producing film-forming latices by emulsionpolymerization, their properties, and some of their uses have beenreviewed (See, for example, Wagner and Fisher Kolloid Z. 1936, 77, 12;Vanderhoff, J. W. and Hwa, J. C. Polymer Symposia Wiley-Interscience,New York (1969)). Additional references include: Whitley, G. S. andKatz, M. K. Indust. Eng. Chem. 1933, 25, 1204-1211 and 1338-1348;Matsumoto, T. Emulsions and Emulsion Technology Vol. II, Lissant, K. J.(Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York (1974) Chapter 9; Encyclopedia of PolymerScience and Technology Vol. 5, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1966) pp.802-859; Dillon, R. E. et al. J. Colloid Sci. 1951, 6, 108-117; andSheetz, D. P. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1965, 9, 3759-3773.

A film-forming latex, ELVACE, containing a potassium chloride referencesolution, has been applied over a reference microelectrode for an ISFETdevice (See, Sinsabaugh, S. L. et. al. Proceedings, Symposium onElectrochemical Sensors for Biomedical Applications, Vol. 86-14, Conan,K. N. L; (Ed.), The Electrochemical Society, Pennington, N.J. (1986),pp. 66-73). This reference contains no teaching or suggestion thatfilm-forming latices can be used as a medium containing anything otherthan an inorganic salt.

In summary, attempts by previous workers to manufacture viablebiosensors with all the characteristics and specifications desirable ina reliable mass-produced microfabricated device have met with limitedsuccess. One of the more important aspects of wafer level processing,that of dimensional control both in the horizontal and verticaldirections of a plurality of layered structures, which dimensionalcontrol in turn affects, inter alia. the uniformity of sensorperformance, is irrevocably compromised when dicing and packaging occurprior to deposition of the biolayers. Manual handling is oftennecessitated by the fragility of the immobilizing or supporting layersand the labile nature of the bioactive molecules contained therein.Previous workers have had to resort to such methods, however. A flexiblewafer level manufacturing process which utilizes superior materials andwhich makes possible the accommodation of such sensitive bioactivemolecules in a biosensor which can be tailored to a variety of clinicalapplications would be of major significance.

2.5. IMMUNOASSAY TECHNOLOGY

Immunoassays are sensitive diagnostic tools for the in vitro detectionof a variety of antigens or antibodies and their association withdiseases or other significant physiological conditions. In the earlystages of developing immunoassay technology, a polyclonal antibodypreparation bound to a solid phase was used in heterogeneous assayswhereby a solution of labeled antigen was allowed to compete directlywith antigen in a sample to determine the extent of bound labeledantigen or to detect the extent of antigen present in the liquid phase.This method provided a way for measuring the presence and quantity ofantigen in the sample being analyzed.

Developments in immunoassay technology then led to non-competitiveimmunometric assays wherein a polyclonal antibody preparation bound to asolid phase was also employed. In these assays, a sample containing thetarget antigen was contacted with the solid phase to provide forantigen/antibody binding. Subsequent to an incubation period, the samplewas removed from the solid phase and then the solid phase was washed toremove any unbound antigen. A solution containing labeled polyclonalantibodies (e.g. with a radionucleotide, enzyme, or fluorescent moiety)was then contacted with the solid phase. Unbound labeled antibody in theliquid phase was separated from the solid phase and bound labeledantibody (antibody:antigen:labeled antibody sandwich) on the solid phasewas measured to determine the presence and/or concentration of antigenin the sample.

More rapid immunoassay procedures have also been developed. In theseassays at least one of the two washing steps may be eliminated andincubation periods required to reach equilibrium may be shortened.

In the prior described processes the bound antibody is generally affixedto beads or small particles. The antibody can also be coated onto asurface. During the assay an incubation period is generally required ofboth the solid phase and labeled antibodies. A prolonged incubationperiod is particularly troublesome if results are needed quickly.Additionally, the long incubation periods and multiple washings havesignificantly limited the use of the assays to clinical laboratories,which have highly trained personnel and sophisticated equipment toundertake the assay. Consequently, there is presently a need for simplerand more rapid immunoassay protocols, and simpler apparatuses for use inemergency rooms, physicians, offices and even for in-home health careservices.

2.6. COLORIMETRIC ASSAYS

Most existing assay protocols, including ELISA and enzymatic assays,provide for colorimetric detection. Generally these methods use asubstrate which, itself, becomes a chromophore or which generates achromophore, the chromophore is then detected spectrophotometrically.However, the spectrophotometric detection may have drawbacks becausesome measurements take an excessively long time or the sample mixturesare turbid. Some chromophores are also extremely unstable, thus, assayprocedures involving non-chromogenic species may be useful.

Indoxyls and some of their derivatives have been employed as substratesin spectrophotometric assays. S. Cotson and S. J. Holt (Proc. Roy. Soc.B 1958, 148, 506) investigated their utilization in the production oftissue stains to identify alkaline phosphatase activity. P. L. Ely andL. K. Ashman (Methods Enzymol. 1986, 121, 497) studied the use ofbromo-chloro indoxyl phosphate as a substrate for determining thespecificity of monoclonal antibodies to protein mixtures inalkaline-phosphatase-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin with immunoblots. J.J. Leary, D. J. Brigati and D. C. Ward (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1983,80(13), 4045) utilized bromo-chloro-indoxyl phosphate for visualizingbiotin-labeled DNA probes hybridized to DNA or RNA immobilized ontonitrocellulose i.e., bioblots. S. J. Holt and P. W. Sadler (Proc. Roy.Soc. B 1958, 148, 481) described the application of the conversion ofindoxyl or a substituted indoxyl into the corresponding indigoid dye tocytochemical staining methods for the localization of cellular enzymes.

The kinetics of aerial oxidation of indoxyl and some of its halogenderivatives were studied by S. Cotson and S. J. Holt (Ibid. 1958, 148,506) as part of their histochemical staining studies for work onenzymes. Their observations agree with the generally accepted view thatsuch aerial oxidation reactions, involving free radicals, invariablyresult in the formation of organic peroxides or hydrogen peroxide,Waters, W. A., The Chemistry of Free Radicals, Oxford University Press,(1946). The aerial oxidation of indoxyls was studied utilizingspectrophotometric methods. All of the above references, exploited thechromogenic properties of indigoid compounds derived from indoxyls.

Examples of other chromogenic applications of the oxidative conversionof indoxyl compounds to indigoid dye have included: an indigogenicreaction for alkaline and acid phosphatase histochemical demonstrationin disk electrophoresis (E. Epstein, P. L. Wolf, J. P. Horwitz, and B.Zak in Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 1967, 48(5), 530); the comparison ofsimultaneous azo-dye coupling methods and an indigogenic reaction foralkaline phosphatase in polyacrylamide disc gels (T. F. Savage, E. C.Smith, and Collins in Stain Technol. 1972, 47(2), 77); protein blottingprinciples and applications (J. M. Gershoni and G. E. Palade in Anal.Biochem. 1983, 131(1), 1); a sensitive method for staining proteinstransferred to nitrocellulose sheets (Z. Wojtkowiak, R. C. Briggs, L. S.Hnilica in Ibid. 1983, 129(2), 486); Visualization of antigenic proteinson Western blots (D. A. Knecht, R. L. Dimond in Anal. Biochem. 1984,136(1), 180); a rapid sensitive method for detection of alkalinephosphatase-conjugated anti-antibody on Western blots (M. S. Blake, K.H. Johnston, G. J. Russel-Jones, and E. C. Gotschlich in Ibid. 1984,136(1), 175); immunoconcentration--a new format for solid phaseimmunoassays (G. E. Valkirs and R. Barton in Clin. Chem. 1985, 31(9),1427); the use of alkaline phosphatase conjugated anti-immunoglobulinwith immunoblots for determining the specificity of monoclonalantibodies to protein mixtures (P. L. Ey and Leonie K. Ashman in MethodsEnzymol. 1986, 121, 497); and work involving the coupling of redox andenzymatic reactions which has been found to improve the sensitivity ofthe ELISA-spot assay (C. Franci and J. Vidal (J. Immunol. Methods 1988,107(2), 239).

Again, all of the preceding references rely exclusively on the spectralproperties of bromo-chloro-indoxyl phosphate as a colorimetricsubstrate.

2.7. ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS AND ASSAY

There has recently been a significant interest in the construction ofelectrochemical sensors, so-called immunosensors, that are capable ofintegration into immunoassay protocols. M. J. Green (Philos. Trans. R.Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 1987, 316(1176), 135) has reviewed severalimmunoassays that incorporate electroactive labels for the amperometricor potentiometric detection of assay products. However, the translationof working laboratory prototypes, as reported in the book, Biosensors:Fundamentals and Application, edited by A. P. F. Turner, I. Karube, andG. S. Wilson, Oxford University Press, 1987, into common commerciallyavailable articles, has been impeded by the absence of appropriatemanufacturing protocols.

A specific example of electrochemical detection as an alternative tocolor detection is described in Anal. Chem. 1984 56, 2355. The referencediscloses an assay in which an enzyme label converts an electroinactivecompound to a detectable electroactive compound. The electroactivecompound, phenol, is oxidized at a potential of +750 mV. However, themethod is not generally applicable since other electroactive componentsare present in blood or serum which are also oxidizable at thispotential.

A very recent reference which illustrates the prevailing notionsingrained in those skilled in the art of "immunoelectrochemical sensing"is that by Rosen, I. and Rishpon, J. in J. Electroanal. Chem. 1989, 258,27. In this article, an enzyme is used as a label which is capable oftransforming a substrate, which is not electroactive, to one which is.In particular, alakaline phosphatase is the enzyme employed. Severalsubstrates are examined, including phenylphosphate,p-nitrophenylphosphate, and p-aminophenylphosphate. In theelectrochemical detection method described, the alcohol products,resulting from the hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by the enzyme (i.e.,phenol, p-nitrophenol, and p-aminophenol, respectively), themselves, aredetected. The viability of detecting other electroactive species,besides the transformed substrate, is not suggested and, indeed, isnever contemplated.

Also, European Patent Applications Nos. 0247796 and 0270206 describemethods for conducting immunoassays which involve primarily moveablemagnetic particles to which are bound immunoactive molecules. Enzymeconjugates are described which generate electroactive species such as H₂O₂. However, the principal means of detection involves chemiluminescenceand, in any event, indoxyl compounds are not mentioned and nomicrofabricated sensing devices useful in performing immunoassays aredisclosed.

3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to wholly microfabricated biosensors andvarious processes for the mass microfabrication thereof. Themicrofabrication processes establish a plurality of thin films andrelated structures over a planar wafer in a fashion which allowsexemplary reproducibility and control over the dimensional features ofthe overlaid structures. In the present invention, such reproducibilityand dimensional control have been realized at the wafer level for themass production of chemical sensors, which sensors incorporatebiologically active macromolecules and other reagents necessary for theconversion of selected analyte molecules to more readily detectablespecies.

This invention also relates to novel electrochemical assay proceduresand to novel wholly microfabricated biosensors useful in determining thepresence and/or concentration of biological species (analytes) ofinterest. The invention also relates to the novel use of a substrate(hereinafter the "substrate") that does not undergo detectableelectrochemical oxidation or reduction but which undergoes a reactionwith a substrate converter producing changes in the concentration ofelectroactive species. These changes are measured and relatedproportionately to the concentration of the analyte of interest.Additionally, the invention pertains to methods for making thebiosensor.

The assay procedures and biosensor of this invention are particularlyexemplified as being useful in effecting immunoassays. Such immunoassaysare also exemplified wherein the substrate convertor is an enzyme thathydrolyzes the substrate. This hydrolyzed substrate can then undergoreactions which produce changes in the concentration of electroactivespecies (dioxygen and hydrogen peroxide) which are electrochemicallydetected with the biosensor, a ligand/ligand receptor-based (LLR-based)biosensor in this instance. Both sandwich and competitive assays can beeffected using the procedures and LLR-based biosensors of thisinvention. In these assays, one embodiment of the present biosensorcomprises a catalytic electrode and optional reference electrode (basesensor), an adhesion promoter layer overlaid on the biosensor, and abioactive layer that is immobilized on the adhesion promoter layer,which bioactive layer is a receptor (first member) of the immunologicalanalyte of interest.

The wholly microfabricated biosensor of the present invention comprisesa substantially planar wafer on which a first structure comprising asuitable base sensor is established. Additional structures are thenestablished over the resulting base sensor, which additional structuresinclude a semipermeable solid film or permselective layer capable ofacting as a barrier against interfering chemical species while allowingthe transport of smaller detectable chemical moieties of interest. Thesedetectable chemical moieties are typically electroactive molecules andmay include low molecular weight ionic species. The semipermeable solidfilm may further comprise compounds or molecules which may serve tosensitize the base sensor to a preselected ionic species (e.g., ammoniumion). Furthermore, such permselective layers may also function asadhesion promoters by which the preselected ligand receptor may beimmobilized to the wholly microfabricated LLR-based biosensor embodimentof the present invention.

Most noteworthy are the support matrices described in the instantinvention which matrices possess the physical and chemical featuresnecessary to support the various bioactive molecules that constitute theprincipal means for converting the particular analytes in a givenanalytical sample into detectable and/or quantitatively measureablespecies. Techniques are disclosed for localizing or patterning saidmatrices on certain desired areas of the wholly microfabricatedbiosensor which allow for the optimum control over dimensional featuresof the biolayers as well as the versatility to accommodate a wide rangeof bioactive molecules.

Additionally, the present invention also discloses materials whichserve, in particular embodiments of the instant biosensor, as overlaidstructures for the attenuation of the transport of selected analytespecies which are present in high concentrations in the sample. Suchanalyte attenuation (AA) layers allow for a linear sensor response overa wider range of analyte concentrations than would be observed in theabsence of an AA layer. Furthermore, the overlaid AA layer, which ispreferably derived from a siloxane/nonsiloxane copolymer, is capable ofexcluding very large molecules or other contaminating constituents ofthe sample whose direct contact with the underlying structures wouldresult in interference with or fouling and an eventual reduction in thereliability of the biosensor.

If the AA layer is of the appropriate structure and composition, it mayalso function as a gas permeable membrane. In certain embodiments of thepresent invention, }such a gas permeable membrane has the practicaladvantage of allowing only very small molecules to pass through. The gaspermeable membrane also insulates the immediate environment of theelectrode portion of the biosensor from external fluid turbulence. Thus,the measurements performed by the preferred LLR-based sensor is renderedfree of flow dependence.

The AA layer of the instant invention is established on the substratewafer or any intervening structures with the kind of dimensional,localized, and geometric control which is compatible with the othersteps in the overall microfabrication process of the instant inventionand the notion of an automated, wafer-level mass-production ofbiosensors.

Quite apart from the AA layer mentioned above, a semipermeable solidfilm which is able to function as a molecular weight-sensitivetransmissive film is among the layers which can be established by themethods of the present invention. Depending upon the composition andfinal thickness of this semipermeable solid film, also referred to as apermselective layer, molecules having molecular weights above a giventhreshold can be effectively excluded from entering and diffusingthrough such a film. As a general illustration of the function andutility of this permselective layer, molecules having a molecular weightof about 120 or above are effectively blocked by a solid film having athickness of about 5 to about 10 nm. Varying degrees of control over thesize of the molecules excluded and the rates of transport of smallermolecules which are able to diffuse through the solid film can beobtained with solid films having a thickness in the range of about 2 toabout 50 nm. With certain types of materials, these permselective layersmay be as thin as 1 nm or may be as thick as 100 nm.

This film may be established on the substrate wafer or any planaranalyte-sensing device in a number of ways but most conveniently as aninitial liquid film, comprising a silane compound mixed with a suitablesolvent, which is spin-coated across the wafer. The silane compound hasa formula, R'_(n) Si(OR)_(4-n), in which n is an integer which may be 0,1, or 2, R' is a hydrocarbon radical comprising 3-12 carbon atoms, and Ris a hydrogen radical or a lower alkyl radical comprising 1-4 carbonatoms. Preferably, the solvent contains an amount of moisture sufficientto hydrolyze the alkoxy groups of the silane compound, if present. Thewafer bearing the liquid film is then heated to a temperature of about90°-250° C. for a period of time effective to form the solid film.Typically about 5 to 30 minutes of heating at this temperature isrequired. The non-volatile content of the initial silane solutiondetermines the final thickness of the permselective layer which can thusbe controlled.

If desired, this permselective layer may be formed at specificpreselected areas of the device by means of photolithographic processingtechniques. Techniques such as "lift-off" and use of a photoresist capin combination with a plasma-etching or, alternatively, a wet-etchingstep may thus be employed to define the location and configuration ofthe semipermeable solid film. The initial liquid silane mixture, muchlike the majority of other liquid mixtures disclosed for use in thepresent invention, can also be microdispensed at multiple preselectedareas of the sensing device. Such microdispensing of fluid media may beperformed automatically and in uniform predetermined quantities by acomputer-controlled syringe interfaced with the controlled movements ofa vacuum chuck holding the substrate wafer. Such microdispensingtechniques are consistent with a microfabrication method and isdiscussed in further detail below.

Thus, in an amperometric electrochemical sensing device, interferingelectroactive species having a molecular weight above a desiredthreshold (e.g., above 120) may effectively be excluded from interactingwith the catalytic electrode surface by employing the permselectivesilane layer of the present invention. Such a permselective layer,however, allows lower molecular weight electroactive species, likedioxygen and hydrogen peroxide, to undergo a redox reaction with theunderlying electrode surface.

In a potentiometric biosensor, a polymeric material having functionalgroups and chemical properties conducive to the further incorporation ofcertain ionophoric compounds may be used as a semipermeableion-sensitive film which is established on the indicator electrode ofsaid sensing device. The development of a potential at theelectrode-film interface depends on the charge density, established atequilibrium, of some preselected ionic species. The identity of suchionic species is determined by the choice of the ionophore incorporatedin the semipermeable film. An enzyme which is, in turn, immobilized inthe novel biolayers described herein catalyzes the conversion of aparticular analyte species, present in the analytical sample, to thepreselected ionic species.

The permselective layers discussed above are selected for theirspecificity to the ionic electroactive chemical species which areproduced by chemical processes taking place in the overlaid structuresreferred to herein as the biolayer. The chemical process which convertsa selected analyte species or exogenous reagent into an ionicelectroactive chemical species is effected by at least one biologicallyactive molecule, such as an enzyme, which is incorporated in thebiolayer. The support matrices of the biolayer and methods of theinstant invention help to stabilize the bioactive molecules againstdegradation caused by further processing, storage, handling, or exposureto analyte or reagent compositions. These support matrices must retain acertain degree of porosity such that analytes of interest may freelydiffuse through the matrix and undergo chemical transformation. Becausethe wholly microfabricated biosensors of the instant invention arelikely to be stored essentially dry, such porosity will also help in theinitial wet up and calibration sequence used to prepare the biosensorfor the actual analytical procedure. If the sensitivity of the bioactivemolecule so dictates, the support matrix is also able to accept andimmobilize enzymes introduced, for instance, from a solution after thematrix has been established locally and/or photolithographicallypatterned and developed. In any event, a sufficient amount ofbiocatalyst and/or ligand receptor must be present in the biolayer toovercome any inactivation due to subsequent processing or handling, ordue simply to the passage of time during storage. Sufficientbiocatalyst/ligand receptor should also be immobilized to provide afavorable condition for the efficient and ready conversion of infusinganalyte molecules. Thus, the biolayer of the present invention comprisesa sufficient amount of a bioactive molecule capable of selectivelyinteracting with an analyte species and a support matrix in which thebioactive molecule is incorporated, which matrix may be a photoformableproteinaceous mixture, a film-forming latex, or combinations of thesematerials. As mentioned previously, the analyte species must be able tofreely permeate through the support matrix and interact with thebioactive molecule contained therein. A variety of additives disclosedabove may be added to the support matrices to further achieve desirablefunctional and structural characteristics not inconsistent with theobjectives of the present invention.

As alluded to earlier, these biolayers are established with thedimensional and geometric control characteristic of wafer levelmanufacturing procedures. Thin-film techniques, spin-coating, use ofphotoresist materials, masking, exposure to radiant energy, anddeveloping methods can be utilized for the majority of biologicallyactive molecules. For the preceding techniques, photoformableproteinaceous mixtures are most conveniently used as the support matrix.If necessary, however, extremely labile enzymes may be introduced later,after the photodefined structures have been established. Such supportmatrices may also serve as electrolyte layers, as well as thephotoresist layers over which the ligand receptors of interest may beimmobilized. Preferably, the immunoreactive species or ligand receptorsare introduced after the photodefined structures have been established.

Alternatively, film-forming compositions, which may include synthetic aswell as naturally-derived polymeric materials, can be used to establishthe solid matrices especially when microdispensing is the method ofchoice for establishing the biolayers. Combinations of photoformablegelatins and film-forming latices may be employed. Again, reagents oradditives may be incorporated into these layered structures as might bedictated by the particular application or analysis at hand.

The present invention thus relates also to a method of establishing adispensed layer onto a substantially planar surface. This methodsucceeds in providing layers having predictable and reproducibledimensions by adjusting the composition of a fluid to be dispensed,until its surface tension and viscosity characteristics are optimized,providing a movable microsyringe assembly, and using the assembly in amanner which allows for close control over the amount of fluiddispensed. Furthermore, the microdispensing method disclosed herein maybe coupled effectively with known techniques for altering the freeenergy of a given surface such that the physical characteristics of theestablished layer (e.g., contact angle, thickness, volume, or area) maybe tailored even further to accommodate a desired application.

Additional layers may also be desirable as mentioned previously toenhance the sensitivity and response time of the device, extend therange of a linear response, and increase the durability of the overlaidstructures. In the case of an analyte attenuation layer, certaincopolymers comprising siloxane and nonsiloxane units may be employedadvantageously. These materials may also be layered or established at agiven thickness, anywhere from about 5 to about 500 nm, and may belocalized by photolithographic methods. Typically, the analyteattenuation layer should have a thickness sufficient to attenuate thetransport therethrough of analyte species having a molecular weight ofabout 120 or more. As stated previously, these AA layers may also beestablished at a thickness sufficient to provide a gas permeablemembrane. In connection with the photoforming step, a "resist cap"method may be employed, for instance, using a type of photoformableproteinaceous mixture which is also a nonbarrier (i.e., it does notimpede or exclude the transport of relevant analyte species).

These and additional objects of the instant invention are apparent fromthe disclosures and examples included herein.

4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The invention may be better understood if reference is made to theaccompanying drawings. These drawings, especially the schematics of thewholly microfabricated sensor structures, are qualitative andtopological in nature and are not meant to convey absolute dimensionalrelationships between the various layers or parts of the biosensor.

FIG. 1 Top elevation of a differential amperometric glucose sensor on a6×3 mm rectangular silicon chip. The significance of the differentlayers is discussed further in Section 5.1, below. The same generalconfiguration may also be employed for the LLR-based biosensorembodiment of the present invention. Alternatively, FIG. 1 may alsoillustrate a differential amperometric LLR-based biosensor on a 6×3 mmrectangular chip. The various areas/layers of the chip refer to contactpads (1), signal line (2), passivation (3), silver/silver chloridereference electrode (4), metal catalytic indicator electrode (5),adhesion promoter (6), or localized adhesion promoter (7), couplingmeans (8), and ligand receptor layer (9).

FIG. 2 Side elevation of one, of the glucose sensor pair of FIG. 1 withsurrounding silver/silver chloride reference electrode.

FIG. 3 Side elevation of a potentiometric blood urea nitrogen (BUN)sensor and reference electrode.

FIG. 4 Top elevation of the sensor of FIG. 3 showing an array ofdifferent biosensors on a single chip.

FIG. 5 Current output (in namps) of the present glucose sensor(oxidation/reduction of hydrogen peroxide) as a function of electrodepotential (mV) using a 20 mM glucose in HEPES buffer sample (0) or HEPESbuffer only (X).

FIG. 6 Current output (in namps) of the present glucose sensor as afunction of glucose concentration (mM) in the sample.

FIG. 7A An alternative embodiment of an amperometric oxygen sensor ofthe instant invention which utilizes a gas permeable layer. Thisconfiguration is also well-suited for the LLR-based biosensorapplication of the present invention. In the LLR-based embodiment, theelectrolyte layer (12) is also the first photoresist layer; the gaspermeable membrane (8') (also referred to as the AA or gas permeablelayer) is established over the first photoresist layer; and thephotoresist cap (9, also the second photoresist layer) is present abovethe AA layer.

FIG. 7B The diagram illustrates a configuration in which the gaspermeable layer substantially encloses an underlying electrolyte layer(or first photoresist layer in the LLR-based biosensor embodiment).

FIG. 8A An alternative configuration of a glucose biosensor based uponthe dioxygen sensor described herein.

FIG. 8B A Ligand/Ligand Receptor-based (LLR-based) biosensor withimmobilized ligand receptor or immunoreactive species (45). Theunderlying sensor configuration is derived from that of FIG. 7B. Thisillustration also employs coupling means (40) to immobilize the activespecies (45).

FIG. 9 Uniformity of the response of three blood urea nitrogen (BUN)sensors, wholly microfabricated by the process of the present invention,to a change in the ammonium ion concentration of an aqueous sample from2 to 20 mM.

FIG. 10 Response of the present BUN sensor to a change in the ureaconcentration of an aqueous solution from 1 to 10 mM.

FIG. 11 Response of the present BUN sensor to a whole blood samplespiked with urea.

FIG. 12 An illustration of one possible configuration of the automatedmicrosdispensing system of the present invention in which syringe (5),holding the material to be dispensed, is attached to a means, (8), forcontrolling its displacement in the direction, z, while wafer, (2), isheld to a vacuum chuck, (1), whose movement in all directions is,likewise, controlled by an automated, computerized means. The system mayalso include a visual means for alignment (e.g., video camera equippedwith a raticle alignable with appropriate alignment features on thewafer).

FIG. 13 An alternative configuration of the automated microdispensingsystem comprising multiple syringe holders, (7). The syringes areinserted into openings, (13), and the vacuum chuck and wafer arepositioned below the ring, (11), and through large opening, (12).

FIG. 14 A schematic rendering of a typical sandwich assay performedusing the present invention is shown. An immobilized ligand receptor(the first member) is positioned near the surface of the biosensor andencounters an analyte molecule (the ligand). The ligand binds to thereceptor and is subsequently attached by an antibody-enzyme conjugate(the labeled antibody or the second member). A substrate is added nextwhich undergoes a chemical transformation mediated by the enzyme (thelabel or substrate converter). The resulting intermediate product thenundergoes a cascade of reactions involving the consumption of dioxygenand the production of hydrogen peroxide (both O₂ and H₂ O₂ aredetectable, electroactive species) and final product (indigo when theinitial substrate is an indoxyl derivative).

FIGS. 15a-15e illustrate the effect of pretreating the electrode surfaceto alter its surface free energy characteristics. The contact angle, θ,of a microdispensed fluid, and eventually, the thickness of the membranelayer above the electrode, is thus controlled.

FIGS. 16a-16c show various embodiments of microdispensed biolayersincluding one which has a large contact angle (FIG. 16a), one with asmall contact angle (FIG. 16b), and one which has subsequently beensubjected to a photopatterning step (FIG. 16c).

5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present manufacturing method is directed to the mass production ofbiosensors having predictable, uniform response characteristics andwhich biosensors are useful in a clinical setting for the convenient andreal-time detection and quantitative measurement of selected analytespecies. The integrated biochemical sensing device is formed on atransducer array by establishing discrete layered structures which arerobust and possess a controlled degree of porosity, at least one ofwhich layered structures is capable of immobilizing one or morebiologically active species. The term biologically active or bioactivemolecule is used to encompass ionophores, ion-exchangers, enzymes,antibodies, antigens, lectins, neurochemical receptors,oligonucleotides, polynucleotides, polypeptides, molecules of DNA,molecules of RNA, proteins, glycoproteins, metalloproteins, cofactors,immunoglobulins, and other macromolecules of physiological significanceincluding mixtures or active fragments or subunits thereof. The termbiocatalyst may also be employed especially with reference to an enzyme,enzyme-complex or mixture thereof. In general, a broad class of ligandreceptors may be immobilized and used in the present biosensors.

The steps comprising the method of this invention, as well as thematerials disclosed which may be used to establish the discrete layeredstructures of the present microfabricated device, retain a surprisingdegree of flexibility and versatility such that a wide range of analytespecies may be selectively examined. Furthermore, the microfabricatedsensing device, or biosensor for short, is available for the analysis ofmost liquid samples including biological fluids such as whole-blood,lymph, plasma, serum, saliva, urine, stool, perspiration, mucus, tears,cerebrospinal fluid, nasal secretion, cervical or vaginal secretion,semen, pleural fluid, amniotic fluid, peritoneal fluid, middle earfluid, joint fluid, gastric aspirate or the like. It should also beunderstood that solid or dessicated samples may be dissolved in anappropriate solvent to provide a liquid mixture suitable for analysis.

A second and related part of the invention is a means of photodefiningoptional additional layers over the active layer to protect it fromcontact with any deleterious components of the analytical sample orsolution containing the analyte (i.e., the species to be analyzed ordetermined). In certain cases, such additional layers serve to attenuatethe transport of the selected analyte into the biologically activelayer, particularly when the selected analyte is present in highconcentration in the sample. In so doing, the effective range of analyteconcentrations in which the biosensor has a linear response is extendedto higher values. Such analyte attenuation (AA) layers can also impairthe responsiveness of the resulting sensing device and, therefore, theirthickness must be carefully considered and controlled. Where theconcentrations of selected analytes in the sample are not so great as toresult in a nonlinear sensor response, such AA layers need not beestablished.

In certain embodiments of the invention, this AA or gas permeable layer,in addition to attenuating the transport of certain analytes orelectroactive species, is also responsible for "insulating" the responseof the sensor against the effects of sample turbulence or flow. Having asensor response which is less sensitive to the external sample flowprovides a more reproducible, reliable signal, and such a configurationis preferred particularly for the LLR-based biosensor embodimentsdescribed further herein.

Furthermore, a semipermeable solid film has also been discovered, whichsolid film may be established and patterned (photodefined) overpreselected areas of a chemical sensing device. This permselective layeris able to act as a barrier against the intrusion of interferingelectroactive species while the desired electroactive species may freelydiffuse through said film. In a particular embodiment of this invention,the permselective layer is derived from a silanizing agent. Typically, arelatively stable silane precursor is dissolved or mixed in a solutionwhich is able to hydrolyze at least two of the groups attached to thecentral silicon atom of the silane precursor. The resulting reagentsolution is then established as a film across the wafer or localizedover preselected areas of the wafer or base sensor. A semipermeable orpermselective layer is then obtained under carefully controlled heatingconditions. The permselective properties of the layer are governed, inpart, by the thickness of the layer which is, in turn, dependent uponthe nature and amount of silanizing agent employed as well as the methodused to establish the film. Whenever desirable, mixtures of silanizingagents may be employed.

By eliminating most interfering electroactive species, fewer correctivemeasures are needed and the result is an operationally simpler device.Moreover, the base transducer, which frequently comprises a catalyticmetal surface, may be heated in the presence of said permselectivelayer, to temperatures in excess of about 150° C. to about 250° C. Thisdeliberate heating step provides an enhanced responsiveness of the basesensor to the primary electroactive species of interest (e.g., hydrogenperoxide or dioxygen) while maintaining the exclusionary nature of thesolid film towards interfering electroactive species of higher molecularweight (e.g., uric acid or ascorbic acid).

In particular embodiments of the present invention, the transduction ofthe analyte concentration into a processable signal is byelectrochemical means. These transducers may include amperometric,potentiometric, or conductimetric base sensors. However, themicrofabrication techniques and materials of the instant invention mayclearly be applied to other types of transducers (e.g., acoustic wavesensing devices, thermistors, gas-sensing electrodes, field-effecttransistors, optical and evanescent field wave guides, and the like)fabricated in a substantially planar manner. A useful discussion andtabulation of transducers which may be exploited in a biosensor as wellas the kinds of analytical applications in which each type of transduceror biosensor, in general, may be utilized is found in an article byChristopher R. Lowe in Trends in Biotech. 1984, (3), 59-65. Thedisclosures and descriptions contained in this Lowe article areincorporated by reference herein. Of the three electroanalyticaltechniques mentioned earlier, the potentiometric and amperometrictechniques are preferred because the output signal may most easily berelated directly to the response of the base sensor to a particularanalyte. Specific examples directed to the production of potentiometricand amperometric type biosensors are found in the Examples Section ofthe present disclosure.

Herein are illustrated the various aspects of the invention whichcombine to yield a viable manufacturing process for an array ofbiosensors, for use in the analysis of undiluted biological samples.Preferred embodiments of an amperometric glucose sensor and apotentiometric urea sensor are described further. These sensors areuseful for analyzing the concentration of glucose and urea,respectively, present in a given sample (e.g., venous blood). Variousother sensors are likewise disclosed, including an embodiment especiallyadapted to perform immunology or affinity-based analyses, for thedetection and measurement of analyte molecules of physiologicalsignificance, along with descriptions of modified configurations madepossible by the present discoveries.

More particularly, this invention also relates to novel electrochemicalassay procedures and to a novel wholly microfabricated LLR-basedbiosensor useful in determining the presence and/or concentration ofselected biological (analytes) species of interest. This aspect of theinvention relates to the discovery that a non-electroactive substrate(hereinafter the "substrate"), which does not undergo detectableelectrochemical oxidation or reduction at an electrode at operatingpotentials which are accessible in aqueous based systems, but whichundergoes a reaction with a substrate converter to form an unstableintermediate. The intermediate undergoes rapid auto-oxidation causingchanges in the concentration of electrochemically detectable species.These detectable species include dioxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Thechanges are measured and related to the concentration of the analyte ofinterest.

Such novel assay procedures and LLR-based biosensor are useful indetecting the presence of, or monitoring the level of, one or moreanalytes in a mixture at a particular concentration, in the presence ofpotentially interfering substances. As mentioned previously the presenceor absence of a particular analyte is determined from the extent of aspecific binding interaction between an analyte and the first member (acapture receptor). The binding interaction, itself, is detected when asecond member (the detection receptor), which is conjugated with a label(substrate converter), reacts with a substrate to give rise to theproduction and/or consumption (change in concentration) of detectablespecies (e.g., hydrogen peroxide or dioxygen); See FIG. 14. Theseconcentration changes are electrochemically detected using the apparatusand assaying procedures of this invention. In particular embodiments ofthe present invention, labeled analyte species may also be employed in"competitive assay" procedures.

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a conjugated enzymeis used as the substrate converter (label) to effect a change in theconcentration of the electroactive species. The enzyme may be conjugatedto the analyte. Any change is detected electrochemically and related tothe analyte of interest. In particular, the invention pertains to thepreferred use of the enzyme alkaline phosphatase as the label and anindoxyl phosphate derivative as the substrate. However, it is apparentto one of ordinary skill in the art that the present invention is not solimited. In the general case, an esterase or hydrolase can be used tohydrolyze any indoxyl ester as long as the product undergoes rapidauto-oxidation. In yet other cases, the reaction of the enzyme with thesubstrate itself produces such a change in the concentration ofelectroactive species.

More particularly, but not exclusively, the invention is concerned withelectrochemical immunoassay procedures and devices to determine analytesof interest. In this regard, an enzyme-labeled antibody or anenzyme-labeled antigen reacts with a substrate to effect a change in theconcentration of electroactive species that is susceptible toelectrochemical detection. In addition, since the enzyme-labeledantibody or enzyme-labeled antigen species is bound respectively to acomplementary antigen or antibody species in a biological sample, theelectrochemically detected enzyme reaction, therefore, provides for thequalitative or quantitative determination of species of interest.Specifically, this invention pertains to the reaction of thenon-electroactive indoxyl phosphoric acid ester, which is the substrate,with an alkaline-phosphatase labeled goat antihuman Immunoglobulin G(antibody) or with an alkalinephosphatase labeled theophylline(antigen). These two reactions are associated with sandwich-type orcompetitive-type immunoassay methods, respectively.

It should be noted that the invention exemplified herein also extends toother assay systems. Theoretically, any ligand/ligand receptor pair inwhich at least one member can be immobilized onto the present biosensorcan be incorporated into an assay procedure. Table II (Section 5.2.2)lists just a few examples of such ligand receptor/ligand pairs.Furthermore, other substrates, whose reaction with the label, orsubsequent auto-oxidation, produces and/or consumes dioxygen or hydrogenperoxide may be readily contemplated. The invention is, therefore, notlimited to the use of a phosphatase enzyme as the label, as alreadymentioned, because other hydrolases and labeling enzymes which arecapable of reacting with a reagent to effectuate a change in theconcentration of electroactive species are equally suitable (See, forexample, Table II). Again, it must be stressed that, while the inventionis described with reference to immunoassay procedures and with animmunological assay apparatus, it is also submitted that other types ofspecific binding reactions, such as those between other complementarybinding species (e.g., enzyme/metabolite, lectin/polysaccharide, andnucleic acid oligomer/anti-oligomer) are also detectable employing theaforesaid electrochemical assay procedures and devices (See, forexample, Tables II and III).

The present invention, therefore, provides processes and devices forperforming simply and rapidly analyte-receptor assays, for exampleimmuno- and immunometric assays, which utilize an electrochemicalsensor, and which do not require lengthy incubation steps. Theelectrochemical procedure and apparatuses described herein for thedetection of phosphatase (label) activity are also highly specific andrelatively sensitive. In addition, chromogenic and turbidimetricinterferences are eliminated due to the nature of the detection system.The use of enzyme labels in the assay together with a non-electroactiveenzyme substrate also potentially facilitates the extension of knownspecific binding assays to greater levels of resolution than thosepreviously accomplished, usually without the requirement of pretreatmentof samples to remove interfering substances. More particularly, theassay of an analyte in the nanomolar and above concentration range isthereby achieved.

5.1. AMPEROMETRIC GLUCOSE SENSOR

The wholly microfabricated glucose sensor of the present inventioncomprises a silicon substrate on which is established thin-filmstructures which make up an amperometric electrochemical transducer, orbase sensor. In a particular embodiment of the present invention,succeeding overlaid structures can be described as (i) a semipermeablesolid film or permselective layer, superimposed over at least a portionof the base sensor, whose function is to promote the adhesion ofsucceeding layers over the base sensor and most importantly to preventinterfering electroactive species which are usually present in venousblood or other biological fluid samples from reaching the catalyticelectroactive surface of the base sensor; (ii) a biolayer, superimposedover at least a portion of the permselective layer, in which isincorporated a sufficient amount of the bioactive molecule, in this casethe enzyme glucose oxidase; and (iii) a layer responsible forattenuating the transport of the analyte species, in this case glucose,from the sample to the biolayer. The analyte attenuation (AA) layer thuslimits the amount of glucose which reaches the enzyme to a givenfraction of the bulk concentration of glucose in the sample.

The term "incorporated" as used herein is meant to describe any state orcondition by which the material incorporated is held on the outersurface of or within a solid phase or supporting matrix. Thus, thematerial "incorporated" may, for example, be immobilized, physicallyentrapped, attached covalently to functional groups of the matrix, oradsorbed onto the porous surface thereof. Furthermore, any process,reagents, additives, or molecular linker agents which promote the"incorporation" of said material may be employed if these additionalsteps or agents are not detrimental to, but are consistent with theobjectives of the present invention. This definition applies, of course,to any of the embodiments of the present invention in which a bioactivemolecule is "incorporated."

The succeeding overlaid structures are preferably confined to thelocality of the electroactive surface of the indicator electrode of thebase sensor. These structures may be localized by means ofmicro-dispensing or photolithographic techniques. An additional layerwhich comprises a photoresist cap may optionally be present over the AAlayer as a consequence of the photoforming steps. This outermost cap canbe established such that it does not act as a barrier to any species ofinterest, if any, and, therefore, need not be removed.

The basic chemical and electrochemical transformations on which theanalytical value of the present device is premised include theconvertion of glucose to gluconolactone by the action of the enzymeglucose oxidase (GOX): ##STR1## As indicated by Eq. 1, thistransformation is accompanied by the concurrent reduction of dioxygen tohydrogen peroxide. Both dioxygen and hydrogen peroxide are electroactivespecies which can undergo redox reactions on the electrocatalyticsurface of the indicator electrode of the base transducer. Otherelectroactive species (such as Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, NH₄ ³⁰, etc.) do notundergo a redox reaction per se but do promote a change in the potentialat the electrode interface (See, e.g., the potentiometric device inSection 5.3). Thus, by applying the appropriate potential across theindicator electrode surface, with respect to a reference electrode, oneof the following electrochemical reactions ##STR2## can take place, allof which result in the consumption of the electroactive species and theproduction of a measurable positive or negative current. Of the threereactions listed above, Eq. 4 is preferred in the present embodimentbecause it releases an equivalent of dioxygen per equivalent of hydrogenperoxide amperometrically measured. The dioxygen produced helps tomaintain an adequate supply of dioxygen available for the enzymaticprocess of Eq. 1. The potential required for the oxidation of hydrogenperoxide is about +300 to about +600 mV, preferably +350 mV, vs.silver/silver chloride reference electrode. The current produced as afunction of the indicator electrode potential of a glucose sensor of thepresent invention is illustrated in FIG. 5 for test samples comprising aHEPES buffer (X) and a 20 mM glucose solution in HEPES (Sigma ChemicalCompany) buffer (O). An increase in the current is observed as theindicator electrode potential is increased from 150 to about +350 mV forthis particular glucose sensor. Further increases in the indicatorelectrode potential result in a nearly level response showing that, inthe steady-state, the magnitude of the current produced is limitedeventually by the amount of glucose analyte which is transported throughthe AA layer. This steady-state range extends from about +350 to about+600 mV as shown in FIG. 5. Conversely, a negative current is observedwith a more negative indicator electrode potential as electrons are usedup in the reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water (Eq. 3 ). Once again alimiting steady-state negative value for the current is reached at acertain negative potential (about -100 mV) and remains relativelyconstant through further increase in the negative value of the indicatorelectrode potential. One preferably operates the indicator electrode atthe plateau to avoid large incremental changes in the current producedby small changes in the indicator electrode potential versus thereference electrode.

The current generated as a result of the preceding electrochemicalreactions may be related ultimately to the concentration of glucosepresent in the sample. In an amperometric sensor, such as the glucosesensor, the measured variable (i.e., the current, i) is related to theflux of the electroactive species at the electrode surface (at adistance, x=0) by Faraday's laws, in combination with Fick's Law ofdiffusion (Eq. 5): ##EQU1## where, n is the number of electrons involvedin the fundamental electrochemical reaction at the electrode, F isFaraday's constant, A is the area of the electrode, and Dp is thediffusion coefficient of the electroactive species, P. In thesteady-state, the rate of the enzymatic reaction in the biolayer isequal to the rate of supply of the glucose analyte through the AA layer.The degree of permeability (Q_(AS)) of the AA layer to the analytespecies (AS) governs the upper limit of analyte concentration for whichthe sensor has a linear response, along with the activity of the enzyme,as measured by the Michaelis-Menton constant, Km. In the limiting casewhere both the amount of the enzyme and its activity are sufficientlyhigh, the current can be controlled solely by the membrane permeabilityto the analyte, (Q_(AS)), and the bulk concentration of the analytespecies, [AS]_(B), as follows (Eq. 6):

    i=nFQ.sub.AS [AS].sub.B                                    (6)

where i, n, and F have the same meaning as stated above. In effect, thesteady-state current response is independent of the amount of enzymeactivity in the enzyme layer. Such a condition enhances the operationalstability and extends the useful shelf-life of the resulting biosensor.

5.1.1. AMPEROMETRIC BASE SENSOR

The amperometric base sensor that is a particular embodiment of theinstant invention is fabricated on a substantially planar siliconsubstrate by means of photolithography in combination with the plasmadeposition of metallic substances. The base sensor may comprise a unitcell containing two catalytic electrodes of identical geometry and area.This configuration allows a differential type of measurement because ononly one of these catalytic electrodes is established a biolayer withactive enzyme. Such a differential measurement may, in turn, enable thedevice to measure a current due to the activity of selected bioactivemolecules over and above a background level, especially in circumstanceswhere an interfering species may not be readily excluded by apermselective membrane.

Referring now to the accompanying drawings, FIG. 1 illustrates apreferred amperometric glucose sensor unit cell which is repeated in ageometric array several hundred times on a single silicon wafer. Eachcatalytic indicator electrode, 5 (iridium metal is used in this case),is surrounded by a combined reference and counter electrode, 4(silver-silver chloride, in particular). The electrodes are eachconnected to one of three contact pads, 1, by means of anover-passivated siqnal line, 2. These contact pads serve as the means bywhich the biosensor is connected to external controlling electronics.The dashed area outlined by 3, represents the passivation layer. Thepermselective silane layer (functioning as an adhesion promoter and asemipermeable solid film), 6, can be present over the entire structureor, preferably, may be localized on the electrode portions of the unitcell. Over the iridium catalyst are successive overlaid structures: thebiolayer or enzyme layer, 7; the AA layer, 8; and the outermost layer,9, a photoresist cap.

FIG. 2 illustrates the layered structures of one of the pair ofindicator electrodes and the reference electrode portion of thepreferred differential glucose sensor unit cell. The other member of thepair of indicator electrodes contains no active enzyme in the biolayer,7. The substrate wafer, 20, is silicon, in this case, with anonconductive layer of silicon dioxide, 15, present above it. Patternedtitanium metal structures, 10, also serve as conducting signal lines tothe contact pads of FIG. 1. The iridium electrocatalyst layer isindicated by 5 in the indicator electrode structure while silver andsilver chloride are designated by 4 and 4', respectively, in thereference electrode structure. The polyimide passivation layer is 3 andthe permselective silane layer (and adhesion promoter) is 6. Finally, 8is the analyte attenuation (AA) layer (also, sometimes referred to asthe gas permeable membrane elsewhere in this disclosure) and 9 is thephotoresist cap.

Although the electrocatalyst is iridium in this particular embodiment,the catalytic metal of the indicator electrode may be made of any of thenoble late transition metals. Hence, other metals such as gold,platinum, silver, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, or osmium arealso suitable. Other elements such as carbon or mercury are also useful.In another embodiment, involving a potentiometric type ofelectrochemical sensor, a mixed metal oxide alloy such as iridiumtantalum oxide may also be used as the metal surface. In yet anotherpossible embodiment, a dioxygen sensor is comprised preferably of a goldindicator electrode. Of these metals, silver, gold, or platinum ispreferred as a reference electrode metal. A silver electrode which issubsequently chloridized is most preferred as the reference electrode.

These metals can be deposited by any means known in the art, includingthe plasma deposition method cited, supra, or by an electroless methodwhich may involve the deposition of a metal onto a previously metallizedregion when the substrate is dipped into a solution containing a metalsalt and a reducing agent. The electroless method proceeds as thereducing agent donates electrons to the conductive (metallized) surfacewith the concommitant reduction of the metal salt at the conductivesurface. The result is a layer of adsorbed metal. (For additionaldiscussions on electroless methods, see: Wise, E. M. Palladium:Recovery, Properties, and Uses, Academic Press, New York, New York(1988); Wong, K. et al. Plating and Surface Finishing 1988, 75, 70-76;Matsuoka, M. et al. Ibid. 1988, 75, 102-106; and Pearlstein, F."Electroless Plating," Modern Electroplatinq, Lowenheim, F. A., Ed.,Wiley, New York, New York (1974), Chapter 31.) Such a metal depositionprocess must yield a structure with good metal to metal adhesion andminimal surface contamination, however, to provide a catalytic metalelectrode surface with a high density of active sites. Such a highdensity of active sites is a property necessary for the efficient redoxconversion of an electroactive species such as hydrogen peroxide ordioxygen. Doubtless, equivalent methods of establishing metal layerswill be apparent to those skilled in the art.

In addition, the substantially planar substrate need not be a siliconwafer but can be a polished alumina wafer, glass sheet, controlled poreglass, or a planarized plastic liquid crystal polymer. In fact theplanar substrate may be derived from any material containing one or moreof a variety of elements including, but not limited to, carbon,nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, aluminum, copper, gallium, arsenic,lanthanum, neodymium, strontium, titanium, yttrium, or combinationsthereof.

Additionally, the substrate may be coated onto a solid support by avariety of methods well-known in the art including chemical vapordeposition, physical vapor deposition, or spin-coating with materialssuch as spin glasses, chalcogenides, graphite, silicon dioxide, organicsynthetic polymers, and the like. Additional substrates may includegallium arsenide, lanthanum gallate, neodymium gallate, or, lessdesirably, strontium titanate should the establishment ofsuperconductive materials be deemed desirable.

In one of the initial steps of microfabrication, good metal-substrateadhesion can be promoted by etching the substrate wafer in an argonplasma prior to plasma deposition of titanium metal. The titanium layerserves as the conductive material for the signal lines and also promotesthe adhesion of subsequent metal layers onto the substrate surface. Thetitanium is deposited at a rate of about 2 nm/sec, to a thickness ofabout 20 to about 500 nm, preferably about 80 nm. This step is followedby plasma deposition of iridium, at a rate of about 0.5 nm/sec to athickness of about 10 to about 100 nm, preferably to about 20 nm. It isimportant to exclude dioxygen during metal deposition, since even tracesof dioxygen lead to the formation of iridium oxide. Excessive amounts ofthe oxide provide an inferior sensor surface with a substantiallyincreased capacitance and, therefore, a slower response.

It has been observed that even thin layers of a tenacious residue canreduce the metal surface activity significantly. In this respect, it isimportant to note that while nonmicrofabricated surfaces can often bereactivated by polishing the electrode with the aid of a slurry of aninert abrasive material, e.g., 0.3 μm particle size alumina powder (See,Sawyer, D. T. and Roberts, J. L. Experimental Electrochemistry forChemists, Wiley, N.Y. (1974), p. 78), this treatment is incompatiblewith microfabricated electrode arrays. Hence, in a preferred method forthe fabrication of the glucose sensor, it is essential that thepolyimide passivation layer (3, in FIGS. 1 and 2) be processed prior todeposition of the catalytic electrode metal. Reversing the order of theprocessing can lead to the contamination of the catalytic metal surface.

Nevertheless, it has also been discovered that for the purposes of thepresent invention, passivation of the signal lines is an optional step.To obtain a device which has less topography (i.e., flatter, with fewerridges), and one which facilitates the application of layers ofmaterials by wafer spinning with the greatest degree of control, it mayeven be desirable to discard the polyimide or other passivation layeraltogether. This omission is possible, perhaps, because of theobservation that titanium, as the metal comprising the signal line, is apoor electrocatalyst for the redox conversion of the electroactivespecies (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, ascorbate, urate).

5.1.2. ADHESION PROMOTER AND SEMIPERMEABLE SOLID FILM

Another aspect of microfabrication which should be considered whendepositing multiple layers onto a planar transducer of this type is thelack of "detailed" rough topography that would promote adhesion betweencomponent layers. Frequently, special materials are employed to promoteadhesion to the underlying surface. A coupling reagent commonly used forthis purpose is γ-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane. The silane compound isusually mixed with a suitable solvent to form a liquid mixture. Theliquid mixture can then be applied or established on the wafer or planarsensing device by any number of ways including, but not limited to,spin-coating, dip-coating, spray-coating, and microdispensing. Themicrodispensing process can be carried out as an automated process inwhich microspots of material are dispensed at multiple preselected areasof the device (See, further Section 5.4, below). In addition,photolithographic techniques such as "lift-off" or using a photoresistcap may be used to localize and define the geometry of the resultingpermselective film (See, Section 6.1.2, infra).

Solvents suitable for use in forming the silane mixtures include aqueousas well as water-miscible organic solvents, and mixtures thereof.Alcoholic water-miscible organic solvents and aqueous mixtures thereofare particularly useful. These solvent mixtures may further comprisenonionic surfactants, such as polyethylene glycols (PEG) having amolecular weight in the range of about 200 to about 6,000. The additionof these surfactants to the liquid mixtures, at a concentration of about0.005 to about 0.2 g/dL of the mixture, aids in planarizing theresulting thin films. Also, plasma treatment of the wafer surface priorto the application of the silane reagent can provide a modified surfacewhich promotes a more planar established layer.

Water-immiscible organic solvents may also be used in preparingsolutions of the silane compound. Examples of these organic solventsinclude, but are not limited to, diphenylether, benzene, toluene,methylene chloride, dichloroethane, trichloroethane, tetrachloroethane,chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzene, or mixtures thereof.

When protic solvents or mixtures thereof are used, the water eventuallycauses hydrolysis of the alkoxy groups to yield organosilicon hydroxides(especially when n=1) which condense to form poly(organosiloxanes).These hydrolyzed silane reagents are also able to condense with polargroups, such as hydroxyls, which may be present on the substratesurface. When aprotic solvents are used, atmospheric moisture may besufficient to hydrolyze the alkoxy groups present initially on thesilane reagent.

The R' group of the silane compound (where n=1 or 2) is chosen to befunctionally compatible with the additional layers which aresubsequently applied. The R' group usually contains a terminal aminegroup useful for the covalent attachment of an enzyme to the substratesurface (a compound, such as glutaraldehyde, for example, may be used asa linking agent as described by Murakami, T. et al., Analytical Letters1986, 19, 1973-86; and the article by Yao, T. referred to previously).

In the instant invention, it has been discovered that a film of a silanecompound having the formula, R'_(n) Si(OR)_(4-n), where n=0, 1, or 2,which has been heated to at least about 100° C., for a sufficient periodof time, usually 5-15 minutes, can dramatically attenuate the transportof interfering electroactive species, ascorbic acid and uric acid, amongothers, to the electrocatalyst without significantly affecting thecurrent due to the transport of dioxygen and hydrogen peroxide. In apreferred embodiment of the present invention, the R' fragment of thesilane is a hydrocarbon radical comprised of 3-12 carbon atoms and R isa lower alkyl radical comprised of 1-4 carbons. In addition, the R'hydrocarbon fragment may further comprise at least one heteroatom suchas an oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur. Further, functionalgroups which represent stable combination of these heteroatoms, such asisocyanato, cyanato, phosphate, and the like may also be present. It mayeven be desirable in certain instances to employ an organosilane reagentin which the hydrocarbon fragment R' further comprises a suitableleaving group, preferably at the terminus of the hydrocarbon fragment.One example of such a silane reagent is 3-chloropropyltrimethoxysilane.In this manner, nucleophilic moieties may be covalently bound to thesilane layer by displacement of the potential leaving group.

The lower alkyl radical, R, may be a methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl,n-butyl, isobutyl, tertiary butyl group, or mixtures thereof. Routineexperimentation will determine which groups are best suited to theparticular manufacturing conditions being employed. Such factors asvolatility, boiling point, and viscosity properties may be importantconsiderations. The ease by which the alkoxy groups are hydrolyzed mayalso be dispositive. Also, because the --OR groups are substantiallyhydrolyzed in an aqueous environment, silane reagents in which R is alsoa hydrogen radical, is within the scope of the present invention.

Indeed, an important aspect of the present invention is the discoveryand recognition that certain classes of silane reagents can beformulated into a convenient medium, established onto a substantiallyplanar surface, and subsequently treated under controlled conditions toprovide a layer or coating with permselective properties. It should bepointed out that prior to these observations, silane reagents wereemployed as mere adhesion promoters, on the one hand, or to establishimpermeable glasses, at the other extreme.

Hence, freshly prepared alcoholic solutions of silicon hydroxides can bespun onto a wafer and heated to an intermediate degree such that thedehydration reaction which accompanies such heating produces a materialhaving semipermeable properties. Although, the --OR groups of the silanereagent are preferably hydrolyzed (and later dehydrated), it should bepointed out that such hydrolysis is not always necessary. The thermalconversion of a tetraalkoxysilane to an intermediate form of silicondioxide can be accompanied by the evolution of an ether compound.

It has been discovered further that replacing one or two of the alkoxyor hydroxy groups of tetrasubstituted siloxane with a group which is notreadily hydrolyzed, such as a hydrocarbon moiety bonded directly tosilicon, renders the resulting silane layers "more porous" than their"glassy" counterparts. Thus, for a given thickness, a layer derived froma silane of the formula Si(OR)₄ is less permeable than one obtained froma reagent of the formula R'Si(OR)₃. The increased permeability of thelatter is, perhaps, best explained by the inferior ability of theR'Si(OR)₃ precursor to establish a network of oxo-bridged silicon atoms.

For optimum performance, then, the thickness and composition of thesilane layer must be controlled. Such control is achieved by carefullyselecting the identity of the silane reagent used, adjusting itsconcentration in the solvent mixture, and determining the properrotation speed if the solution of the silane is deposited onto the waferby spin-coating. Numerous silane compounds such as3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane,3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,3-isocyanatopropyltriethoxysilane, 10-aminodecyltrimethoxysilane,11-aminoundecyltrimethoxysilane,2-[-{N-(2-aminoethyl)aminomethyl}phenyl]ethyltrimethoxysilane,n-propyltrimethoxysilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane,diethylphosphatoethyltriethoxysilane, orN,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)aminopropyltriethoxysilane,3-chloropropyltriethoxysilane, are commercially available and may beprocessed in this manner to yield a semipermeable solid film whichpromotes adhesion of subsequent layers of other materials and yet isable to act as a small-molecule-selective membrane. As stated earlier,other materials used as preceramic or precursors to dielectric layersmay also be used under proper conditions. Silicafilm products availablefrom Emulsitone Company (Whippany, N.J. 07981) may be utilized. Examplesof other silanes include tetrahydroxyorthosilicates (silicic acid) ortetraalkylorthosilicates such as tetramethyl, tetraethyl, tetrapropyl,tetrabutyl orthosilicates, or their mixtures. However, the preferredsilane compound is N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyl(trimethoxy)silane. Theresultant sensor is easy to manufacture, has a very fast response timeto changing hydrogen peroxide concentrations, and is substantially freeof the signals resulting from interfering electroactive species.

As mentioned previously, the degree of permeability of the permselectivesilane membrane is due not only to the nature of the silane reagent butis also largely dependent on its thickness. A useful range of thicknesslies in the range of about 1 to about 1000 nm, preferably between about2 to about 20 nm. However, where one desires to substantially excludemolecules having a molecular weight of about 120 or more while allowingthe effective diffusion of molecules having a molecular weight of about50 or less, the preferred thickness of the silane layer, particularlywhen the preferred silane compound is used, should be in the range ofabout 5 to about 10 nm. The types of interfering electroactive speciesthat one may wish to exclude from interacting with the metal catalystsurface include, but are not limited to, uric acid, ascorbic acid,salicylic acid, 2-(p-isobutylphenyl)propionic acid, cysteine,4-acetamidophenol (acetaminophen), reduced glutathione, and the like,including their physiological salts in addition to any drug ormetabolite thereof.

It has further been discovered that heating the planar wafer bearing thesilane compound to a temperature in the range of about 150° C. to about250° C., maximizes the subsequent indicator electrode response towardthe oxidation of hydrogen peroxide. It is possible that at these highertemperatures, the surface of the electrocatalyst becomes more highlyactivated.

Separately, it is also advantageous to cycle the applied potential frompositive to negative values before the actual sample is introduced. Forthe amperometric sensors such as glucose, the current signal that ismeasured may be small compared to the background noise. This conditionmay arise either from incomplete wet-up of the membrane layers or fromdeactivation of the electrode surface. It has been found that thissignal-to-noise ratio may be increased by applying potential pulses tothe electrode prior to making the measurement. Such a procedure can beconveniently carried out automatically by a suitable programmed sequenceeffected by the external electronics.

According to a particular embodiment for the instant glucose sensor,then, the iridium electrocatalyst is poised at a potential of +350 mVversus the silver-silver chloride reference electrode with apermselective silane layer is localized over the working electrode. Asnoted in Section 5.1.6, however, one configuration of the instantglucose sensor can be produced in which this permselective silane layermay be replaced by a gas permeable layer which preferably comprised asiloxane-nonsiloxane copolymer. As discussed infra such materials can beestablished at a sufficient thickness and can be localized overpreselected areas of the sensor, chip, or wafer. Furthermore, differenttypes of permselective layers may be utilized at different preselectedareas of the sensing device. Such embodiments containing a gas permeablelayer interposed between multiple photoresist layers are especiallysuitable for the LLR-based biosensors, described further below.

5.1.3. OVERLAID BIOLAYER

For the amperometric glucose sensor, the support matrix in which thebiologically active molecule is immobilized is preferably photoformablein addition to providing a stabilizing environment for the biocatalyst.Most preferably, such a photoformable matrix behaves like a negativephotoresist (although the methods are adaptable to positive resists) sothat discrete structures may be applied and formed over predeterminedareas of the transducer array; the biolayer is usually aligned with theiridium catalyst layer. Therefore, the support matrix material is firstapplied as a liquid solution in a suitable solvent, usually water, ontothe wafer by spin-coating. The support matrix material may be about 0.02μm to about 20 μm in thickness at this stage, preferably 0.1-2.0 μm.Alternatively, the layer may be applied in other ways including, but notlimited to, dip-coating, spray-coating, or automated microdispensing.After deposition of the matrix film, the radiation-sensitive material isexposed to radiant energy (e.g., visible light, ultraviolet, infrared,X-ray, electron beam, ion beam, and the like) through a patterning maskfor a sufficient length of time to initiate the transformationsnecessary for fixing the exposed areas of the matrix to the wafer (inthe case of a negative photoresist). The developing stage of thelithographic procedure usually involves exposing the irradiated wafer tofurther chemical reagents or solvents which ultimately results in theremoval of unexposed matrix material while exposed areas remain fixed tothe wafer.

It has surprisingly been discovered that hydrated proteinaceoussubstances which contain a sufficient amount of a photosensitizer(photoactivator or photoinitiator) are able to behave as suitablenegative photoresist materials but in which a wide range of bioactivemolecules may be immobilized or incorporated. It has also been foundthat these water-based photoformable multicomponent negative resistmaterials may also comprise various other components (sometimesnonproteinaceous) which modify the characteristics and properties of theresulting resist.

The proteinaceous substance of the resist mixture acts as acrosslinkable matrix, and the photoactivator serves to initiate thecrosslinking reaction upon exposure to radiant energy. As used herein, aproteinaceous substance is meant to encompass substances which aregenerally derived from proteins whether the actual substance is a nativeprotein, an inactivated protein, a denatured protein, a hydrolyzedspecies, or a derivatized product thereof. Examples of suitableproteinaceous materials include, but are not limited to, albumin,casein, gamma-globulin, collagen and collagen derived products (e.g.,fish gelatin, fish glue, animal gelatin, and animal glue). It isimportant to note that the photoformable proteinaceous mixtures of thepresent invention are comprised substantially of the protein-derivedmaterial. It is the proteinaceous material, itself, which serves as theimmobilization matrix brought about by the photoinitiated crosslinkingreaction. This matrix is uniquely suited to act as a photodefinablemembrane which also provides a very hospitable environment for thebioactive molecule.

The preferred substance is fish gelatin derived from the skin ofNorthern cold water fish, also known as "Teleostean Gelatin" (SigmaChemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.). The multicomponent photoformable resistmaterial may contain 0.01-50 g/dL fish gelatin solids, preferrably0.5-10 g/dL. A wide range of high oxidation state transition metalcompounds (salts, complexes, or chelates) can serve as a suitablephotosensitizer. Representative compounds include, but are not limitedto, ferric chloride, ferric ammonium citrate, ferric potassium citrate,ferric ammonium oxalate, ferric sodium oxalate, ferric potassiumoxalate, ferric oxalate, ferric ammonium tartrate, manganese tartrate,potassium dichromate, and ammonium dichromate. The most preferredmaterials are ferric ammonium citrate and ammonium dichromate which maybe present in the material at about 0.1-10 g/dL, preferrably about 1-2g/dL. Alternatively, the photoactivator can itself be a multi-componentsystem comprising a photosensitizing dye and a transition metalcompound, preferably of high oxidation state. Virtually anyphotosensitive dye will do so long as the resulting photoactivated dyeis capable of reducing a suitable transition metal compound. Thephotosensitizing dye may be a xanthine-based dye, such as fluoroscein(or a halogenated derivative thereof), eiosin, rhodamine, or methyleneblue, and the like. The metallic component may include, but is notlimited to, salts of Pb²⁺, Hg²⁺, Ti⁴⁺, Cu²⁺, CrO₄ ⁻, Ag⁺, and MoO₄ ⁻ inwhich the appropriate counterion is preferably selected to confersolubility to the metal salt. For additional examples, please see Oster,G. K. and Oster, G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1959, 81, 5543-5545.

Although the mechanism is not completely understood, it is believed thatradiant energy, such as UV light, initiates the reduction of theparamagnetic ferric ion to the ferrous form in the presence of suitableelectron donors such as citrate ion (Eq. 7). Upon exposure of theferrous ion to hydrogen peroxide in the developing solution, hydroxylradicals are produced (Eq. 8) which, in turn, promote the crosslinkingof the proteinaceous material, especially in the presence of addedcrosslinking agents, such as a polyunsaturated compound.

    Fe.sup.3+ +hν+e.sup.- donor→Fe.sup.2+            (7)

    Fe.sup.2+ +H.sub.2 O.sub.2 →Fe.sup.3+ +HO.+HO.sup.- (8)

Again, not wishing to be limited by theory, it is believed that thechromium system works slightly differently in effectuating a change inthe solubility of the protein material. One may speculate that exposureof the dichromate initiates the transformation shown in Eq. 9.

    Cr.sub.2 O.sub.7.sup.2- +hν→CrO.sub.3 +CrO.sub.4.sup.2-(9)

The chromate ion may then combine with functional groups of the gelatinto alter its solubility characteristics. In any event, the developingmedium for the chromium system may be composed solely of water.

Additional compounds may be added to the resist material to modify itscharacteristics and properties. Crosslinkers such asN,N'-methylenebisacrylamide can be used to promote patternability. Otheradditives are listed in Table I. The preferred additive isN,N'-methylenebisacrylamide which may be at a concentration range ofabout 0.01 to about 10 g/dL, preferably about 1-2 g/dL. It is understoodthat the examples listed in Table I are not exhaustive and are not meantto limit the scope of the present invention. Furthermore, many othertypes of crosslinking agents maybe employed so long as two functionalgroups are present in the compound. The preferred functional group is avinyl group. However, other groups which may be present include, but arenot limited to, formyl, carboxyl, anhydride, amine, amide, epoxy,hydroxyl, cyano, isocyanato, thio, halo, or any stable combinationthereof.

Polyhydroxylated compounds such as glycerol, and alcohol sugars, such assorbitol, erythritol, and mannitol, may be added to the crosslinkedmatrix to promote the formation of a more open (porous) structure. Suchporosity-altering substances may also include simple salts and may beused in combination with the polyhydroxylated compounds. Detergents maybe added also to promote planarization of the matrix during spin-coatingonto the wafer. Nonionic surfactant materials such as polyethyleneglycol, Triton X-100, or reduced Triton X-100 may be used at aconcentration of about 0.01 to about 1 g/dL, preferrably at about 0.1g/dL.

                                      TABLE I                                     __________________________________________________________________________    Other Suitable Crosslinking Agents                                            Compound       MW   Structure                                                 __________________________________________________________________________     .sub.-- N, .sub.-- N'-Methylenebisacrylamide                                                168 (n = 2)                                                                         ##STR3##                                                 Dihydroxyethylene- bisacrylamide                                                             204                                                                                 ##STR4##                                                 Diallyltartardiamide                                                                         232                                                                                 ##STR5##                                                 Triallylcitrictriamide                                                                       312                                                                                 ##STR6##                                                 Ethylene diacrylate                                                                          170                                                                                 ##STR7##                                                 n-Polyethylene glycol diacrylate                                                             214 (n = 2)                                                                         ##STR8##                                                 Bisacrylylcystamine                                                                          262                                                                                 ##STR9##                                                 Acetonebisacrylamide                                                                         198                                                                                 ##STR10##                                                1,1-Dimethylethylene- bisacrylamide                                                          196                                                                                 ##STR11##                                                2,2-Dimethylpropylene- bisacrylamide                                                         210                                                                                 ##STR12##                                                Diacrylylpiperazine                                                                          196                                                                                 ##STR13##                                                Diacrylylethylene- dipiperidine                                                              306                                                                                 ##STR14##                                                1,6-Heptadiene-4-ol                                                                          112                                                                                 ##STR15##                                                Acrylamide      71                                                                                 ##STR16##                                                Acrylic acid    72                                                                                 ##STR17##                                                Acryloyl chloride                                                                             90                                                                                 ##STR18##                                                Acrolein        56                                                                                 ##STR19##                                                Acrylonitrile   53                                                                                 ##STR20##                                                Acrolein dimethyl acetal                                                                     102                                                                                 ##STR21##                                                __________________________________________________________________________

The biologically active component, or a mixture containing same, caneither be pre-mixed with the negative photoresist (e.g., fishgelatin/ferric ammonium citrate) and co-deposited therewith or may beimpregnated thereafter into the patterned support matrices. Where awafer containing any array of identical sensors is required,spin-coating a negative resist is preferred since spinning offers thebest dimensional control over the thickness of the layer. It may also beless wasteful, of course, if the biologically active component isimpregnated into the already patterned structure. Where an array ofdifferent sensors is required in a single wafer, however, it is moreeffective to pre-mix each biologically active component with thenegative photoresist and then microdispense the mixture at appropriatelocations on the wafer. Alternatively, solutions of differentbiocatalysts may be introduced into each established support matrix.After all the mixtures have been dispensed, structures are then formedby a single patterning step. Microdispensing of the mixture is achievedby using an automatically controlled syringe with the wafer placed on anx, y, z - controlled vacuum chuck. The vacuum chuck may also be rotatedslightly, if needed, to align the reference axis of the chip with thetranslational axis of the chuck. In general, microdispensing enoughmaterial to cover an area about three times the diameter of thecatalytic electrode will dry to leave a substantially planar regiondirectly above the catalytic electrode. Additional details of theautomated microdispensing system are given in Section 5.4 and in FIGS.12 and 13.

It should be evident to one of ordinary skill that variations of thistechnique may also be used to microdispense reagents other thanbiocatalysts. For example, reagents comprising adenosine diphosphate(ADP) and glycerol may be microdispensed in the vicinity of an ATPsensor, which reagents may be dissolved by an added fluid during theoperation of the sensor. In addition there may be circumstances wherethe reagent cannot be exposed to the water-jets used to cool the dicingsaw when the wafer is diced; that is, where the reagents comprise watersoluble compounds, fragile membranes, etc., the wafer can either bepartially diced (the dicing saw is used to score the wafer surface sothat it can easily be broken along the score line after processing) orcompletely diced. In the latter method, wafer dicing using a commercialdicing saw (such as those supplied by Microautomations Inc., SantaClara, Calif. or Kulicke and Soffa Industries Inc., Willow Grove, Pa.)is performed with the wafer stuck on a flat plastic sheet in the centerof a metal frame. When the wafer is diced completely the individualchips remain attached to the plastic. Thus, the step and repeatdistances are maintained, and the microdispensing process can still beperformed. This technique employing the plastic backing on a metal frameprovides individual chips which have smoother edges than those obtainedby breaking partially diced or scribed wafers. Consequently, betterfitting assemblies, such as the disposable sensing device of the relatedand co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 245,102, may be produced.

It has been discovered that such a microdispensed layer is almost asplanar in the region above the base sensor after drying as that obtainedby spin-coating. The thickness of this layer after patterning iscontrolled largely by the solids content of the resist, its viscosity,the surface energy of the substrate wafer, and the subsequentdevelopment time. With respect to the surface energy considerations, thesurface can actually be tailored to spread the microdispensed materialin a controlled manner. For instance, if the surface surrounding theindicator electrode is either polyimide or silicon dioxide, it can bemade hydrophilic by exposure to an oxygen, water, argon, or nitrogenplasma. (A fluorocarbon plasma treatment makes silicon dioxidehydrophilic but a polyimide hydrophobic) (See, Section 5.4.1.3, below).

Of course, only those sections of the proteinaceous layer which areexposed to light, through the photolithographic mask, contain thereduced metal species. As mentioned previously, when an iron species isused as the high oxidation state metal, the irradiated wafer is thenexposed to an aqueous developing solution which contains, among othercomponents, hydrogen peroxide. The reduced metal species (ferrous ion,in this particular case) next interacts with the hydrogen peroxidepresent in the solution producing hydroxyl radicals. These radicalswhich are produced locally initiate the crosslinking reactions whichserve to "fix" the proteinaceous matrix onto the exposed areas of thesubstrate wafer. Unexposed (uncrosslinked) portions of the proteinaceouslayer are thus concurrently washed away. The reader is reminded that inanother preferred embodiment, a dichromium system is useful as thephotosensitizer. The mechanism of action of this system appears to bedifferent from the iron system because plain water may be usedeffectively as the developing solution. Doubtless, otherphotosensitizing systems may be readily apparent to those skilled in theart which are consistent with the teachings and objectives of thepresent invention. Such equivalent photoinitiated means for "fixing" theproteinaceous matrix is naturally within the scope and spirit of theinstant invention.

Surprisingly, it has been discovered that a number of enzymes arecompatible with and are not inactivated or denatured by such negativephotoresist-based processes. Examples of these enzymes include, but arenot limited to, oxido-reductases with an organic cofactor, e.g., theflavoproteins: glucose oxidase, sarcosine oxidase, cholesterol oxidase,NADH oxidase, and glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase; oxidoreductases with ametal ion at the active site, e.g., uricase; hydrolases, e.g.,creatininase; and kinases, e.g., glycerol kinase and hexokinase. Otherenzymes which may be immobilized within the proteinaceous matrix (orintroduced subsequent to the establishment of the matrix structure)include, but are not limited to, urease, creatinine amidohydrolase,creatinase, creatine kinase, cholesterol esterase, glucosedehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, alaninetransaminase, aspartate transaminase, amylase, lipase, esterase,γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, L-glutamate oxidase, pyruvate oxidase,diaphorase, bilirubin oxidase, or appropriate mixtures of these and theabove-mentioned enzymes. Additional macromolecules of biologicalsignificance, such as proteins, lectins, neurochemical receptors,molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), molecules of ribonucleic acid(RNA), polypeptides, glycoproteins, metalloproteins, immunoglobulins,cofactors, antibodies, antigens, receptors, ionophores, ion-exchangers,oligonucleotides, polynucleotides and mixtures, active fragments orsubunits thereof, may also be immobilized by means of the negativephotoresist process described herein. The above-mentioned substancesmust not be sensitive to brief exposure to ultraviolet light, dichromateion, ferric ion, ferrous ion, crosslinking agents, or hydrogen peroxide(with certain photosensitizing agents), however, if they are to bepresent before the photoforming and subsequent development steps. Thosethat are denatured or inactivated under these conditions may beintroduced subsequent to the patterning step as an aqueous solution, forexample, as mentioned previously and further, infra.

The thickness and porosity of the preferred proteinaceous layer isimportant in controlling the final properties of the sensor. If thelayer is too thick, the response will be impaired, and if it isinsufficiently porous, the amount of enzyme which can be loaded into thestructure will be too low. Generally, the proteinaceous layer may rangein thickness from about 10 nm to about 0.5 mm, preferably about 0.05 toabout 5 μm.

It should be noted that most biologically active macromolecules,including enzymes, generally degrade over time. Consequently, enoughbiocatalyst should be present in the immobilizing layer of the biosensornot only to provide the most favorable overall reaction rates but alsoto compensate for the amount of bioactive molecule (e.g., enzyme) whichinevitably degrades over the period of time that the sensor is stored.Sensors manufactured with defects in the thickness or porosity of theproteinaceous layer will unavoidably have a limited shelf-life or usefullifetime, and will have impaired performance characteristics. It istherefore a crucial object of the present invention to provide amicrofabrication process which is reliable and establishes overlaidbiolayers in a reproducible and controllable manner.

Consistent with this objective, it has been discovered that thethickness of the layer can be controlled, among other things, by thecontent of solids in the negative photoresist, the spin speed, and thedevelopment time. On the other hand, the porosity of the crosslinkedlayer can be controlled, for example, by adding certain reagents to thenegative photoresist which are radical scavengers (free-radicalinhibitors) and can thus impede the degree of crosslinking. One suchreagent is sorbitol. Other porosity-altering substances may includemonosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, sugaralcohols, simple salts, or combinations thereof. Thus in a preferredembodiment of the present invention, the photoformable gelatin layer isformulated to contain from about 0.01 to about 4 g/dL of sorbitol. Ithas been found that too much sorbitol, for example over 5 g/dL, resultsin a composition which undergoes very little crosslinking and is,therefore, not photoformable.

It should be mentioned that the porous characteristics of theimmobilizing layer also aid in the initial "wet-up" stage of theoperable biosensor. This stage involves the "wetting" and calibration ofthe biosensor which is stored essentially dry under a controlledhumidity environment. Any structural features which speed up thisprocess shortens the waiting time needed before the results areobtained.

By incorporating the bioactive molecules, or combinations thereof,described above and following the methods of the present invention, abroad scope of analytes may each be detected selectively and measuredquantitatively in a given wholly microfabricated biosensor device. Arepresentative group of analyte species of interest may include,although this list is by no means exhaustive, dissolved and totalamounts of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ammonia, dioxygen, ethanol,ionized calcium, sodium ion, potassium ion, lithium ion, hydrogen ion,chloride ion, magnesium ion, ammonium ion, hydrogen peroxide, ascorbicacid, glucose, cholesterol, uric acid, esterified cholesterol, urea,creatinine, creatine, triglycerides, lactate dehydrogenase, creatinekinase, alkaline phosphatase, creatine kinase-MB, alanine transaminase,aspartate transaminase, bilirubin, amylase, lipase, among others.

The biolayers of the present invention have utility in a wide range ofapplications in which a biologically active molecule is to beincorporated in the solid phase at preselected areas of a given device.Whether the biolayers are spin-coated across a surface, painted,screen-printed, dipped, or dispensed as microspots, they may belocalized at strategic, precise areas by, for example, photolithography.Conceivably, these materials can be applied to any surface comprisingpart of a diagnostic system or kit, for example. The components of thetest can be separated in different sections of the test surface and onlylater combined during the actual performance of the test. Such binary,ternary, or higher multicomponent systems can incorporate a chromogenicreagent which may then produce a characteristic color.

The film-forming latices may also be coated onto reactor beads, hollowfibers, or the inside walls of a bioreactor to promote the chemicaltransformation of reactive substrates. In addition, more than one numberor one type of biolayer may be established to accomplish a series oftransormations leading to the overall detection of a complex analytelike adenosine triphosphate, for example, or more than one analyte(e.g., cholesterol and glucose). Clearly, film-forming latices may bemicrodispensed, for instance, over proteinaceous layers. Alternatively,the reverse sequence, proteinaceous layers over microdispensedfilm-forming latices, may also be accomplished. A plurality ofproteinaceous layers may also be established readily. Those skilled inthe art can readily conceive of slight modifications or otherapplications of the present compositions which would follow quitenaturally from the instant disclosures. Because of the broad utility ofthese compositions, such natural extensions are considered within thescope and spirit of the present teachings and are considered equivalentsof the invention.

5.1.4. ANALYTE ATTENUATION (AA) LAYER

The sensor, thus far described, can function as a glucose sensor per se;that is, glucose solutions placed in contact with this device willproduce a signal output (i.e., current) which is proportional to theconcentration of glucose in the sample. In clinical practice, however,two limitations must still be overcome. First, such a sensor would havea response proportional (i.e., linear response) to the concentration ofglucose in a sample over only a very narrow range of glucoseconcentration. Typically, this range spans about 0.1 to about 2.0 mM inglucose, hardly appropriate for the range of glucose concentrations(1-25 mM) encountered in fluid samples obtained from diabetic subjects,for instance. Second, the proteins, cells, and other components of wholeblood, or any other biological fluid, would quickly foul such a sensorand prevent the uniform transport of analyte molecules. Although theblood sample may first be centrifuged or filtered to remove its heavierconstituents, one would ideally, and most conveniently, wish to performthe tests on whole blood.

As already mentioned, the narrowness of the linear response range is duelargely to the inherent biochemical properties of the enzyme employed inthe functioning sensor described to this point. Such a sensor would notperform in the most ideal fashion in most clinical settings.

In the case of the glucose sensor, the enzyme glucose oxidase becomessaturated kinetically at a glucose concentration as low as 4 mM. As aconsequence, the sensor provides no analytical information at higheranalyte concentrations (i.e., the response becomes nonlinear, even zeroorder). A possible solution to this problem of low saturation levelswould involve providing some means for allowing only a certain, butconstant, fraction of the glucose, or any other desired analyte, toreach the enzyme-containing layer without significantly attenuating thetransport of the co-reactant dioxygen (Eq. 1). In other words, such alayer would tend to attenuate the amount of analyte reaching thebiolayer but would also serve as a gas permeable membrane. If thefraction of attenuated analyte concentration is sufficiently low, therange of actual glucose concentrations which can be analyzed becomesmuch more desirable. However, because the amount of analyte, and hencethe amount of electroactive species produced by the enzymatic reaction,is diminished, the current output must also necessarily decrease. Thedesirability of a linear response must, therefore, be carefully balancedagainst an overly diminished signal output.

In a particular embodiment of the present invention an additional layerof material, termed the analyte attenuation (AA) layer, is depositedover the enzyme-containing layer or biolayer. The thickness of the AAlayer governs to a large degree the amount of analyte that reaches theactive enzyme. Its application must, therefore, be carried out understrict processing conditions, and its dimensional thickness must beclosely controlled. In other words, the AA layer must be established ina manner which is consistent with one of the primary objects of theinstant invention. An AA layer which is too thin fails to provide asufficiently linearized signal, while an overly thick layer is expectedto reduce the current excessively and also slow down the response timeof the sensor. In utilizing an AA layer, the problem of sensor foulingby extraneous materials is also obviated.

As in the microfabrication of the underlying layers, an important factorwhich affects close dimensional control over the AA layer is thecomposition of the AA material itself. In this regard, it has beendiscovered that several types of copolymers, for example, a copolymer ofa siloxane and a nonsiloxane moiety, are particularly useful. Thesematerials can be microdispensed or spin-coated to a controlledthickness. Their final architecture may also be designed by patterningand photolithographic techniques in conformity with the other discretestructures described herein. Examples of these nonsiloxane-siloxanecopolymers include, but are not limited to, dimethylsiloxane-alkeneoxide, tetramethyldisiloxane-divinylbenzene,tetramethyldisiloxaneethylene, dimethylsiloxane-silphenylene,dimethylsiloxanesilphenylene oxide, dimethylsiloxane-α-methylstyrene,dimethylsiloxane-bisphenol A carbonate copolymers, or suitablecombinations thereof. The percent by weight of the nonsiloxane componentof the copolymer can be preselected to any useful value but typicallythis proportion lies in the range of about 40-80 wt %. Among thecopolymers listed above, the dimethylsiloxane-bisphenol A carbonatecopolymer which comprises 50-55 wt % of the nonsiloxane component ispreferred. These materials may be purchased from Petrarch Systems,Bristol, Pa. (USA) and are described in this company's products catalog.

Other materials which may serve as AA layers include, but are notlimited to, polyurethanes, cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate,silicone rubber, or combinations of these materials including thesiloxane nonsiloxane copolymer, where compatible.

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a solution ofdimethylsiloxane-bisphenol A carbonate block copolymer in a mixture ofchlorinated and aromatic solvents is spin-coated onto the wafer.Ethereal and carbonyl-containing solvents may also be usedadvantageously in the solvent mixtures. The thickness of this layer iscontrolled by the non-volatile content of the mixture and thespin-speed; its porosity to glucose is controlled also by the solventcomposition. Examples of suitable solvents include, but are notnecessarily limited to, diphenylether, benzene, toluene, xylenes,methylene chloride, trichloroethane, tetrachloroethane, chlorobenzene,dichlorobenzene, phenetole, 2-methoxyethylether, acetophenone,propiophenone, and cyclohexanone.

The AA layer thickness may be in the range of about 2 nm to about 10 μm,but is preferably between about 5 nm to about 10 nm for mostapplications. The thinner layers are most useful for the attenuation oflow-molecular weight molecules (e.g., those having a molecular weight ofabout 100 to about 300). If the layer is sufficiently thick and castfrom the appropriate solvent system, it can act as a gas permeable layerin which only gaseous molecules like ammonia, dioxygen, or hydrogenperoxide can permeate. It should be understood that the nature of thepolymer film, along with its thickness, governs the dimensionalthreshold at which the analyte attenuation layer becomes a gas permeablelayer. Depending on the particular polymeric material used, a givenlayer may function as a gas permeable layer at a lesser or greaterthickness relative to another. Such routine experimentation to determinethe useful range of thickness, for a given function of a given material,is deemed within the capability of a person skilled in the art.Generally, for the preferred materials, certain layers with a thicknessof about 5-1000 nm can function as an AA layer, whereas some layershaving a thickness of about 100-5000 nm would function as a gaspermeable membrane. Hence, some overlap in the thickness ranges is to beexpected.

An important aspect of the establishment of the AA layer is thesuccessful patterning of the polymer layer without deleteriouslyaffecting the function and performance of the underlying layers,particularly the activity of the enzyme should a biolayer be presentunderneath. It is desirable to localize the area covered by the AAmaterial and to remove it from regions of the wafer where it wouldinterfere with other functional aspects of the sensor. The contact pads,1 (FIG. 1), for example, must be unhindered in their ability to makeelectrical contact with a microprocessor unit.

To pattern the AA copolymer layer, a gelatin-based negative photoresist,similar to that employed for the enzyme-containing layer and known asNPR 6, is spin-coated over the polymer layer and patterned to leave aphotoresist cap only in locations where the AA copolymer is required.This negative photoresist is available commercially from NorlandProducts Inc., New Brunswick, N.J. Excess AA copolymer can then beremoved by exposure to a basic etchant which may be comprised of analcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide or tetramethyl ammoniumhydroxide. It has been discovered that the resist cap does not affectthe response of the glucose sensor and, therefore, its subsequentremoval is optional. Clearly other aqueous-based photoresists known tothose skilled in the art could also be used to pattern the AA layer.

Referring now to FIG. 6, one can see that the response of the glucosebiosensor as disclosed herein is linear over a much wider range ofglucose concentration due to the presence of the AA layer. Without theAA layer, the sensor would have been less appropriate for use inundiluted biological materials.

5.1.5. FINISHING STEPS AND ADDITIONAL EMBODIMENTS

The final step in manufacturing the device involves dicing the wafer toyield individual glucose sensors. This step may be convenientlyperformed by an automated machine with a diamond-impregnated rotatingsaw-blade and which is equipped with a means for delivering water jetsto cool the blade and to remove swarf and the like. This relativelydrastic step is capable of effectively destroying all but the mostrobust thin-film structures which are present on the substrate wafer. Ofparticular significance in the present invention is the discovery thatthis step can, in fact, be successfully performed on the embodiments ofthe glucose sensor as described herein without a deleterious effect onthe selectivity, sensitivity, and overall performance of the sensor. Thedisclosures of the present invention represent, therefore, a truemicrofabrication manufacturing process which can be utilized in theproduction of identical microcomponents useful as sensors for analytemolecules of physiological, biological, and medical significance.

In some instances, nevertheless, it may be preferable to "scribe" thewafers with the automated rotary saw prior to establishing thestructures which comprise the bioactive layers of the chemical sensor.This process involves a partial dicing step which outlines eachindividual sensor on the wafer. The scribing process facilitates a finalcleaving step at the end of the manufacturing process but still leavesthe scribed wafer with sufficient structural integrity to endure theintervening process steps. The scribing process is described in moredetail in the Examples section of this disclosure.

Additional types of chemical sensors based on the proteinaceousphotoresist immobilizing layer are described in the Examples section.Most of these examples involve amperometric devices which utilize anelectroactive species (e.g., hydrogen peroxide or dioxygen) generatedfrom an enzyme-catalyzed reaction involving an analyte molecule and somecofactor. Among the specific embodiments given is a means formicrodispensing a mixture containing the enzyme uricase onto a sensor,followed by patterning the resulting thin film to yield a uric acidsensor. In addition, a combined glucose and cholesterol sensor may becoprocessed by microdispensing two mixtures on the sensor, onecontaining glucose oxidase and the other containing cholesterol oxidaseand cholesterol esterase. An example of an adenosine-5'-triphophate(ATP) sensor which involves the co-immobilization of more than oneenzyme is also given. This process is achieved by microdispensing amixture comprised of glycerol kinase and glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase.These examples are illustrative of the generality of themicrofabrication process of the instant invention and demonstrate thebroad scope of chemical sensors which may be fabricated limited only bythe availability of suitable catalysts (e.g., enzymes) and/or reagents(e.g., adenosine diphosphate, ADP), needed for a specific chemicaltransformation.

5.1.6. AN AMPEROMETRIC DIOXYGEN SENSOR, ELECTROLYTE LAYER, ANDALTERNATIVE PERMSELECTIVE LAYER

As alluded to in numerous parts of this disclosure, the specificembodiments described herein enjoy great flexibility depending upon theparticular application or analysis to be performed. For instance, thepreceding discussion concentrated on the utility of the hydrogenperoxide sensors when coupled to biocatalyst systems which consume theneutral or charged analyte species and concommitantly produced H₂ O₂.However, in certain situations, the change in the concentration ofdioxygen may be a more convenient variable to monitor.

A skilled practitioner in the art recognizes that dioxygen is consumedin many enzymatically catalyzed processes. Thus, one could monitor, inthe alternative, the decrease in the amount of dioxygen present in asample as a consequence of the enzymatic action on the enzyme substrateor analyte species. In one embodiment of a dioxygen sensor, the basesensor is comprised of a gold indicator electrode superimposed over theprimary titanium layer as shown in FIG. 7. The metallic components ofthe dioxygen base sensor are as illustrated in the figure and resembleclosely the hydrogen peroxide sensor depicted in FIG. 2 except that thepreferred electrocatalyst metal 5 is gold in this case. The overlaidstructures in FIGS. 7A and 7B are essentially the same comprising, insuccession, an electrolyte layer 12, a gas permeable layer 8', and aphotoresist cap 9. The principal distinction is that the gas permeablelayer 8' effectively envelopes the entire underlying electrolyte layerin the configuration of FIG. 7B, and, thus, more effectively seals offthe electrode region from the external fluid. However, such a structurewould be expected to take a longer time to "wet-up" relative to thearchitecture of FIG. 7A. The preferred materials for use in theelectrolyte layer and photoresist cap are the photoformableproteinaceous mixtures described herein. The gas permeable membrane/AAlayer is preferably formed using the siloxane/nonsiloxane copolymersdescribed previously.

From a processing point of view, it is noteworthy that the configurationof FIG. 7A can be established using a single photoexposure step in whichthe photoinitiated crosslinking reaction can take place both in theunderlying electrolyte layer and the overlaid photoresist cap. Thestructure of the dioxygen sensor of FIG. 7B, on the other hand, wouldrequire a first exposure to radiant energy followed by the developingstep to form the underlying electrolyte layer. The AA material wouldthen be established followed by the photoresist cap. The finalstructures are then localized over the preselected areas by a secondexposure through a photolithographic mask, then developed in theappropriate developing solution. In the single exposure method, itshould be remembered that the conditions of irradiation can be adjustedsuch that all of the sensitive layers receive an appropriate exposure toprovide photocrosslinked matrices. This penetrating irradiation step isonly possible, however, where the intervening layers (in this case, thegas permeable layer) do not significantly absorb the radiant energy.Thus, preferred materials for use in the AA layer should not be stronglyabsorbing in, say, the ultraviolet region of the electromagneticspectrum. Such preferred materials are the siloxane/nonsiloxanecopolymers, for example.

Two additional aspects of the dioxygen sensor embodiments arenoteworthy. First, the gas permeable layer can be established at athickness such that only small gaseous molecules, like dioxygen, caneffectively reach the electrode portions of the sensor. Therefore,interfering electroactive species may be substantially excluded from theelectrocatalyst surface in this manner. The gas permeable layer thusperforms the same permselective function as the permselective silanelayer and can be used for that purpose, in the alternative. Second, theelectrolyte layer surrounding the electrode structures, in cooperationwith the other overlaid structures, provides a "stagnant" environment,in terms of external turbulence, within which the redox reactions cantake place on the metal surfaces. Put another way, the amount of redoxspecies reaching the electrode surface is governed by the presence ofthe gas permeable and electrolyte structures such that the electroderesponse is independent of the flow or turbulence characteristics of theexternal fluid sample. Furthermore, the electrolyte layer, which ishydrated under normal operating conditions, is able to provide protonsfor the redox reaction of dioxygen. The resulting multi-layered deviceis much more reliable and able to provide more accurate and repoduciblemeasurements relative to a bare metal electrode configuration.

The structures illustrated in FIG. 8 embody these latter aspects of thepresent invention. In FIG. 8A, the biolayer, 7, is superimposed over theunderlying gas permeable layer of a dioxygen sensor as in FIG. 7. The AAlayer 8 and photoresist cap 9 are established over the biolayer asdescribed previously. If the bioactive molecule present in the biolayeris glucose oxidase, then the resulting device is able to function as aglucose sensor, with the gas permeable layer performing a similarfunction as the permselective silane film described earlier.

The structures of FIG. 8B, on the other hand, illustrates a device whichis described further in Section 5.2, but which takes advantage of theunderlying electrolyte and gas permeable layers (12 and 8',respectively) against external fluid turbulence or sample flow. In thisdevice, a coupling means, 40, is used to covalently attach a ligandreceptor or immunreactive species, 45, to the outermost surface of thelayered structures (e.g., to the top of the photoresist cap, 9). Asdisclosed further, infra, such a device is useful as a ligand/ligandreceptor-based (LLR) biosensor which expands considerably the range andscope of possible analyte species which may be detected or analyzed bythe wholly microfabricated biosensor devices of the present invention,without being unduly sensitive to the movement of the external fluidsamples.

5.1.7. PERFORMANCE OF THE GLUCOSE SENSOR

FIG. 5 shows the steady-state current for glucose as a function of theoperating potential of the glucose sensor with respect to the on-boardsilver/silver chloride reference/counter electrode for a solutioncontaining HEPES buffer 50 mM (pH 7.4) containing 100 mM NaCl (O) andthe same solution containing 20 mM glucose (X). At potentials between300-+600 mV the current is associated with hydrogen peroxide oxidationat the iridium electrode surface derived from the enzymatic oxidation ofglucose by the enzyme glucose oxidase. At potentials between -200 to-100 mV the current is derived from the reduction of hydrogen peroxideat the iridium electrode surface. The observation of a plateau currentfor both the oxidation and reduction of hydrogen peroxide suggests thatthe biosensor current is limited by transport of glucose through the AAlayer into the enzyme layer, as discussed earlier.

FIG. 6 shows a calibration curve for the glucose biosensor in which thesteady-state current measured at +350 mV is plotted as a function ofglucose concentration. The response is linear in the range 1-30 mMglucose. Additional experiments demonstrate that the current response isnot significantly effected by: (i) changes in pH over the range commonlyencountered in biological fluids e.g., pH 6.8-8.2; (ii) changes in thepartial pressure of dioxygen over the range 20-200 mm Hg; or (iii)changes in chloride ion concentration over the range 50-200 mM. Theglucose biosensors, indeed, any of the biosensor embodiments of theinstant invention may be used in conjunction with the devices which arethe subject of co-pending U.S. application Ser. Nos. 245,102 and 187,665(the complete disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein)to perform measurements of glucose or other analyte levels in biologicalfluids such as human plasma, serum, or whole blood.

5.2. LIGAND/LIGAND RECEPTOR-BASED BIOSENSORS ADAPTED FOR CONDUCTINGBIOLOGICAL ASSAYS OR CHEMICAL TESTING

In another embodiment of the present invention, the microfabricatedbiosensors may be adapted for performing analyses based uponintermolecular affinity and/or immunochemical complex interactions. Suchinteractions are manifest in numerous complementary ligand/ligandreceptor complexes such as antigen/antibody, antibody/anti-antibody,biotin/avidin, immunoglobulin G/protein A, enzyme/enzyme receptor,hormone/hormone receptor, substrate/enzyme, DNA (or RNA)/complementarypolynucleotide sequence, drug/drug receptor, and the like. Thus, anassay may be devised in which one or the other member of the complex maybe the analyte species of interest, and the other component may be usedas the sensor-immobilized ligand receptor or immunoreactive species.

Generally, a first member (e.g., the ligand receptor) is immobilized(e.g., by covalent attachment or adsorption) over a preselected area ofthe biosensor (preferably, above the indicator electrode). Next, theligand or analyte species is allowed to bind to the first member,forming an affinity, immuno, complementary, or like complex. Dependingupon the assay method employed (e.g., a sandwich assay), a second memberwith a suitable label is then introduced and binds to the analyte.Finally, a substrate for the enzyme label is introduced which isconverted by a process initiated by the label. In such a fashion,electroactive species, such as dioxygen or hydrogen peroxide, aregenerated (or consumed), and the quantitative amounts of which aredetected advantageously by the underlying base sensor. The second memberand the substrate may be collectively referred to as reagents with whichthe sample suspected of containing the analyte species may be treated orcombined. Such reagents may further comprise other components which mayenhance the interaction of the reagent or reagents with the analytespecies or to amplify the change in the concentration of detectablespecies so produced.

In an embodiment of the instant ligand/ligand receptor-based (LLR-based)biosensor, the first member may be immobilized by covalent attachment toa functionalized silane layer, with or without the benefit of acrosslinking agent (e.g., glutaraldehyde, epichlorohydrin, and others).Preferably, the immunoreactive species or ligand receptor is covalentlybound to the outermost layer of a sensor having a structure of the typeillustrated in FIGS. 7 or 8. Such a configuration would possess all theadvantages attendant with the presence of the overlaid structures asexplained earlier in Section 5.1.6. Again, the base sensor may bepredisposed to hydrogen peroxide (e.g., iridium) or dioxygen (e.g.,gold).

The exact assay procedure used is a choice which can be made by oneskilled in the art and can be a procedure based, for example, onexisting "sandwich" assays, competitive assays, or the like. Where thebase sensor is an electrochemical sensing device, the instant embodimentis particularly useful in the qualitative and quantitative measurementof analytes which are of interest in immunology or substance detection.

5.2.1. AN LLR-BASED BIOSENSOR ADAPTED FOR IMMUNOASSAYS

As a particular illustration of an LLR-based biosensor that usesprocedures based on existing sandwich assays, one can take a specificcase in the general area of antigenic substance/antibody interactions.The presence of a particular analyte species, such as a particularantigen, may be detected, for example, by immobilizing an antibody(first member), capable of binding to the specific antigen of interest,onto the base sensor of the present invention. The resulting LLR sensoris then brought into contact with a mixture comprising the sample, inwhich the presence of the antigen is to be determined, and a secondantigen-specific antibody (second member) which is labeled suitably. Theaction of the "label" on a chemical substrate, subsequently added,initiates a process by which the measurement of the analyte species iseffected. Alternatively, the antigen (first member) may be immobilizedon the base sensor, and the antigen-specific antibody may be the analytespecies. A second member, comprising an anti-antibody, may then bepresent to bind to the analyte species. This second member would also be"labeled" with an enzyme, such as alkaline phosphatase. An enzymesubstrate is then introduced.

As described earlier, the antibody or antigen may be attachednon-covalently (e.g., by adsorption) or attached covalently, directly orthrough an intermediate crosslinking reagent, to functional groupspresent on the silane layer. In one example, a photoresist cap may alsobe present which photoresist cap is preferably comprised of aproteinaceous substance. As such, the proteinaceous substance alsopossesses a multitude of reactive functional groups, notably amino andcarboxylate groups, to which the first member of the assay may be boundcovalently.

The base sensor may be selected from an amperometric electrochemicaldevice to which the applied potential allows the electrochemicalconversion of hydrogen peroxide or dioxygen. Preferably, antibody isimmobilized via any coupling means well-known in the art to theoutermost layer of the preferred dioxygen sensor, which outermost layercomprises a proteinaceous substance or mixture thereof, and aligned overthe indicator electrode, to provide a structure such as that illustratedin FIG. 8B.

In another embodiment of the present LLR-based biosensor, a hydrogenperoxide base sensor with an overlaid permselective silane layer (alsoacting as an adhesion promoter) is manufactured as already described inthe preceding sections. The permselective silane layer is useful as ascreen against interfering species which may otherwise come into contactwith the base sensor and which may interfere with the analysis duringincubation of the appropriate reactive components, including the testsample. Preferably, the silane layer is confined to preselected areas ofthe base sensor.

The substrate wafer bearing the silanized base sensors, or otherelectrolyte/gas permeable layers, is preferably "scribed" (as describedin Section 5.1.5) before the layer of immunoreaotive species isestablished. The scribed wafer can then be exposed to a solution ofqlutaraldehyde, or any other suitable crosslinking reagent known to theskilled practitioner, and subsequently to a solution of the desiredfirst member. The resulting wafer may then be cleaved to provideindividual chips or devices.

(It should be noted that the term "substrate", as used generally in theart and in this disclosure can refer to one of two substances. Where thebase sensor is the subject of the discussion, "substrate" refers to thesubstantially planar surface or wafer which forms the foundation of thetransducer. When the context of the disclosure is focused on anenzymatic process, "substrate" refers to the chemical species which istransformed by that enzymatic process.)

5.2.2. METHODS FOR PERFORMING ELECTROCHEMICAL ASSAY PROCEDURES

The electrochemical assay procedures of the invention relate to manyanalytes of interest. Such assay procedures involve sandwich andcompetitive assay procedures using this invention's novel biosensor,which is an electrode described in detail infra, to detect changes inthe concentration of electroactive species.

In the operation of a sandwich assay, a solution is prepared whichpossibly contains the analyte of interest and a second member (detectionreceptor), which is labeled with a substrate converting moiety. If theanalyte of interest is present, then the second member and the analyteform a complex. The sandwich assay also uses an LLR-based biosensor onwhich is immobilized a first member (capture receptor of the analyte).The complex obtained from the analyte and second member is brought intocontact with the biosensor to form a capture receptor/analyte/detectionreceptor complex on the biosensor. Following the formation of thiscomplex on the biosensor, the biosensor is washed to remove othercomponents of the solution which are not complexed to the biosensor. Thebiosensor to which the complex is bound is then placed in contact with anon-electroactive substrate whereby the label of the second receptorreacts with the substrate. This reaction ultimately (i.e., directly orindirectly) initiates a sequence of steps which effectuate changes inthe concentration of electroactive species (i.e., produces hydrogenperoxide and/or consumes dioxygen) which are electrochemically measured.The measurement provides for the determination of the correspondinganalyte concentration in the sample.

In another embodiment of the invention, enzyme linked immunosorbentassay (ELISA) competitive assays are performed. In these assays acapture receptor is bound to the biosensor, and the biosensor is placedin contact with a sample containing the analyte of interest thatcompetes with a fixed quantity of analyte labeled with a substrateconverter. In the alternative, a sample containing the analyte ofinterest on the surface of cellular material can also be used as theanalytical sample. Following the formation of an (analyte andlabeled-analyte)/capture receptor complex on the biosensor, thebiosensor is washed to remove uncomplexed components of the solution.The biosensor is contacted with the non-electroactive substrate wherebythe substrate reacts with the label to induce changes in theconcentration of electroactive species. To this end, an electrode ispoised at an optimum preselected potential sufficient to induce thereduction or oxidation of the electroactive species produced and/orconsumed by the enzymatic reaction. Furthermore, the change in theconcentration of the electroactive species is measured and correlated tothe analyte which one is seeking to detect.

In preferred aspects of this invention, the assay pertains to anelectrochemical sandwich immunoassay or a competitive immunoassay.

One embodiment of a sandwich assay pertains to the use of animmunosensor on which an antigen (receptor) is immobilized. A samplepossibly containing mono- or polyclonal antibodies of interest (analyte)is admixed with an enzyme-labeled antigen or enzyme-labeledanti-antibody, and formed antibody/(enzyme-labeled antigen orenzyme-labeled anti-antibody) complexes in the admixture are contactedwith the immunosensor to form an immobilizedantigen/antibody/(enzyme-labeled antigen or enzyme-labeledanti-antibody) complex on the immunosensor. The immunosensor is thenpreferably washed to remove admixture components other than theimmobilized complex. The immunosensor is then put in contact with thenon-electroactive substrate whereby the enzyme moiety of the immobilizedcomplex reacts with the substrate, which reaction ultimately (i.e.,directly or indirectly) initiates a sequence of steps which effectuatechanges in the concentration of electroactive species (i.e., produceshydrogen peroxide and/or consumes dioxygen) which are electrochemicallymeasured. The measurement, consequently, provides for the determinationof the antibody concentration in the sample.

In the aforesaid where labeled anti-antibody is used, the assay isparticularly suited to allergy specific assays where the first member orcapture receptor is an allergen (antigen) bound to the adhesion layer(or in other embodiments, a photoresist layer), and the second member ordetection receptor is an antibody to IgE. In some cases, the IgGresponse to allergens may be measured similarly, i.e., by using anantibody against IgG, as the second member.

In another embodiment of a sandwich immunoassay, a mono- or polyclonalantibody (capture receptor) is immobilized on an electrode to form theimmunosensor. A sample possibly containing the antigen of interest isadmixed with an enzyme-labeled antibody (detection receptor), and formedantigen/enzyme-labeled antibody complexes in the admixture are contactedwith the immunosensor to form immobilizedantibody/antigen/enzyme-labeled antibody complexes on the immunosensor.This immunosensor is then processed as is noted regarding the priordescribed sandwich immunoassay to determine the antigen concentration inthe sample. The reader may refer to FIG. 14 which schematicallyillustrates certain aspects of a particular embodiment of the instantinvention.

One embodiment of a competitive assay pertains to the contacting of animmunosensor, to which is bound an antigen to antibodies (mono- orpolyclonal), with a sample possibly containing the antibodies ofinterest and a fixed quantity of enzyme-labeled antibodies. Followingthe formation of antibody and labeled-antibody/antigen complexes on theimmunosensor, the immunosensor is washed to remove uncomplexedcomponents of the solution and then the immunosensor is contacted withthe non-electroactive substrate whereby the substrate reacts with thelabel to induce changes in the concentration of electroactive species.To this end, an electrode is poised at an optimum preselected potentialsufficient to induce the reduction or oxidation of the electroactivespecies produced and/or consumed by the enzymatic reaction. Furthermore,the change in the concentration of the electroactive species is measuredand correlated to the analyte which one is seeking to detect.

An alternative embodiment of the competitive assay pertains to thecontacting of an immunosensor, to which is bound antibodies to anantigen, with a sample possible containing an antigen of interest and afixed quantity of enzyme-labeled antigen.

In performing the electrochemical assay procedures described herein, thesample to be analyzed and the labeled ligand receptor are typicallypremixed before being brought into contact with the LLR-based biosensor.Such an initial premixing or incubation step is not necessary, however,because all the necessary binding interactions may be allowed to takeplace on the LLR sensor. Ultimately, thus, a ternary or "sandwich"complex comprised of an immobilized antibody/antigen/labeled antibody isformed. As mentioned previously, unbound materials (and interferingelectroactive species) are then preferably removed from the sensor. Thisstep may be carried out by using a wash solution which may also containa non-ionic detergent. This wash solution is displaced, in turn, by asolution containing a substrate which is complementary to the enzymelabel. Alternatively, unbound materials may be removed concurrently withthe introduction of the enzyme substrate (i.e., the solution containingthe enzyme substrate may also function as the wash solution). Theensuing enzymatic reaction leads to the production and/or consumption ofelectroactive species, which species may undergo a redox reaction at theindicator electrode. The analysis is completed by measuring the signaloutput (current) produced in response to the electrochemical reaction.The magnitude of the output current is proportional to the changes inthe amount of electroactive species present at the indicator electrodeat the steady-state and which amount is proportional, in turn, to theoriginal concentration of the analyte of interest. Thus, in a particularembodiment of the present invention, an enzyme-linked immunosorbentassay (ELISA), or related procedures and variations known to thoseskilled in the art, is performed using the wholly microfabricatedligand/ligand receptor-based biosensor disclosed herein.

Table II lists a few enzyme/substrate pairs which may be utilized in themethod or one equivalent to that disclosed herein for theelectrochemical detection of selected immunoreactive analyte orparticular ligand species. Of the enzymes listed, alkaline phosphatase,acting on a suitable phosphoric acid ester, is preferred principallybecause of its high turnover rate. Other enzymes may also be preferredaccording to the requirements of a particular system. Those workers ofordinary skill can readily determine the particular combination ofcharacteristics (e.g., stability, specificity, etc.) best suited to agiven set of conditions.

                  TABLE II                                                        ______________________________________                                        Representative Complementary Enzyme/Substrate Pairs which                     Involve the Consumption or Production of O.sub.2 or H.sub.2 O.sub.2.sup.a                         Electroactive Species.sup.b                               Entry Enzyme       Substrate  Consumed                                                                              Produced                                ______________________________________                                        1     uricase      uric acid  O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                         2     sarcosine oxidase                                                                          sarcosine  O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                         3     cholesterol oxi-                                                                           cholesterol                                                                              O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                               dase                                                                    4     glycerol-3-phos-                                                                           glycerol-3-                                                                              O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                               phate oxidase                                                                              phosphate                                                  5     pyruvate oxidase                                                                           pyruvate   O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                         6     diaphorase   NADH       O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                         7     catalase     H.sub.2 O.sub.2                                                                          H.sub.2 O.sub.2                                                                       O.sub.2                                 8     L-glutamate oxi-                                                                           L-glutamate                                                                              O.sub.2 --.sup.d                                      dase                                                                    9     bilirubin oxidase                                                                          bilirubin  O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                         10.sup.c                                                                            alkaline phospha-                                                                          BCIP       O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                               tase                                                                    11    glucose oxidase                                                                            glucose    O.sub.2 H.sub.2 O.sub.2                         ______________________________________                                         .sup.a The content of this table is by no means comprehensive with respec     to the number of suitable enzyme/substrate combinations or alternative        substrates (enzymes) for a given enzyme (substrate). This table serves        only to illustrate useful enzymes and their substrates and is not to be       construed as limiting the scope and utility of the present invention.         .sup.b These electroactive species are either consumed or produced or         both.                                                                         .sup.c BCIP = Bromochloroindoxyl phosphate. Alternatively, an indoxyl         ester (e.g., indoxyl acetate) may be used in conjunction with an esterase     enzyme.                                                                       .sup.d Water is formed.                                                  

It should be stressed that the choice of immunoreactive species to beimmobilized onto the base sensor depends on the particular analytespecies to be measured and is within the skill of those knowledgeable inthe art. For instance, a first member (capture receptor; e.g., anantibody) receptor for a particular antigen such as Immunoglobulin G,may be covalently bound to the base sensor while a second antibody,having a binding site on the antigen different from that of the firstreceptor, is labeled with a suitable enzyme. The sample to be analyzedfor the presence of Immunoglobulin G (antigen) is then incubated withthe receptor conjugate (enzyme-labeled antibody) and then brought intocontact with the LLR sensor as described above. Of course, an antigenicsubstance may also be immobilized, instead, onto the biosensor where aparticular antibody is the analyte species of interest. The sequence ofsteps may be varied also, and other modifications can be incorporatedinto the assay procedure as warranted by the particular analysis to beperformed.

Perhaps in its simplest form, the assay can be performed by preparing amixture comprising the test sample, the labeled antibody, and thesubstrate. This mixture is brought into contact with the LLR-basedbiosensor on which is immobilized a first antibody member specific tothe antigen of interest. A quantitative measure of the amount of analytespecies is made by comparing the signal output of the sensor with onenearby in which the immobilized antibody (first member) is absent orunreactive towards the antigen. The difference between the two signaloutputs can be related to the concentration of the antigen in the testsample.

Also, whereas the foregoing application of the invention has stressedthat complex formation on the immunosensor takes place after theformation of the analyte/labeled second receptor complex in a sandwichassay and with a sample containing both labeled and unlabeled analyte ina competitive assay, other variations in the assays, protocol arecontemplated. It is noted, therefore, that in a sandwich assay thesecond member (detection receptor) can be placed in contact with theimmunosensor before or after the immunosensor is contacted with thesample containing the analyte of interest. In the case of a competitiveassay, the labeled-analyte can be placed in contact with theimmunosensor before or after the immunosensor is contacted with thesample containing the analyte of interest.

Although the invention, as described infra pertains to examples of anassay for a specific type of analyte detected by measuring differentelectroactive species, it is contemplated that similar assays for avariety of analytes are possible. Possible analytes include, but are notlimited to, IgG, IgM, prostatic acid phosphatase, prostate specificantigen, alphafetoprotein, carcinoembryonic antigen, leutenizinghormone, choriogonadotrophin, creatine kinase MB, and the like.Additionally, liquid samples containing material having analytesassociated therewith, such as antigens associated with bacteria,parasites, fungi, or viruses including for example, Neisseria gonorrhea,Gardnerelle vaginalis, Trichomonas vaginalis, Candida albicans,Chlamydia trachomatis, hepatitis B, herpes, rubella, acquiredimmunodeficiency virus (HIV or HTLV III), cytomegalovirus and autoimmuneantibodies can be detected using a membrane that will trap the cells ora membrane to which a receptor specific for the antigen is bound.

Other sandwich assay procedures are also contemplated using a biosensorthat selectively immobilizes a first member. For example, a first memberand a second member are added to a sample containing the analyte ofinterest. This admixture can form a first member/analyte/second membercomplex that selectively binds via portions of the first member of thecomplex to the biosensor. Alternatively the three component admixturecan be contacted with the biosensor, whereby the first member isselectively immobilized on the biosensor followed by the sequentialcomplexing to the first member (capture receptor of the analyte) andthen second member, or an analyte/second member adduct can complex withthe immobilized first member. In addition, the biosensor can besequentially contacted with the first sensor analyte containing sampleand detection receptor to yield the first member/analyte/second membercomplex bound to the biosensors. The resulting sensor-bound complexesare then treated with a substrate as previously disclosed to assay forthe analyte.

In this manner, any type of affinity binding interaction between twomolecular species may be exploited so long as one of the pair may beimmobilized onto the electrochemical device (preferably, via functionalgroups present on the outermost layer, which may be the silane layer ora proteinaceous substance) and the other may be labeled suitably. Thus,for example, the assay of the invention can also be used to detect anenzyme by binding the enzyme's receptor to the biosensor. A labeledantibody against the enzyme can be used to detect formation of areceptor/enzyme/labeled antibody complex on the biosensor. Monoclonalantibodies, may also be used in any of the assays described herein.

The assay of the invention can also be used to detect nucleic acidoligomers. In these assays the biosensor is functionalized with (hasbound on it) a nucleic acid oligomer as a probe-receptor for nucleicacid material in a sample. The probe may be an oligomer of DNA, forexample, complementary to a sequence in the nucleic acid of interest andcan be used to bind a polynucleotide, RNA, or DNA as the analyte.Detection of the analyte-receptor complex can be done using a secondnucleic acid oligomer complementary to a non-interfering region of thenucleic acid analyte of interest, the second oligomer being labeled topermit detection. Alternatively, an antibody which recognizes the hybridformed by the polynucleotide sequence and the probe may also be used asthe immobilized ligand receptor. Still other ligand receptors may beuseful such as DNA-binding proteins and the like.

Moreover, receptors for certain drugs may be isolated and immobilized,and so forth. The sample may then be incubated with the LLR-basedbiosensor, and the amount of bound enzyme may be determined by theaddition of a suitable substrate which gives rise to the production orthe consumption of an electroactive species upon interaction with theenzyme. The procedures may also be varied to use a label other than anenzyme. The use of the label must allow the production of anelectroactive species or the consumption of an electroactive species(i.e., gas, or some other electroactive species) which areelectrochemically measured.

As a further aid to one who wishes to practice the methods or tomanufacture the LLR sensors of the present invention, Table III isprovided herewith as a working guide. It must be stressed, however, thatappropriate combinations of analyte, immobilized receptor, and thespecific method used are virtually unlimited. In addition, other typesof outer surfaces or solid phases may prove useful for theimmobilization of ligand receptors or immunoreactive species. It iswithin the skill of the ordinary practitioner to determine which systemsare best suited for the particular application at hand. In theparticular area of immunoassay techniques, additional methods andgeneral discussions may be found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,366,241; 4,376,110;4,486,530; and 4,740,468 the disclosures of which patents areincorporated herein by reference. Indeed, U.S. Pat. No. 4,184,849discloses pairs of reagents for agglutination, one of which pairs may beimmobilized on the present LLR-based sensor and the member of said pairsmay be labeled. An inhibition of the binding of the reagent pairs, andsubsequent inhibition of the activity of the label, would then beproportional to the amount of (or indicative of the presence of) analytespecies in the sample.

                  TABLE III                                                       ______________________________________                                        REPRESENTATIVE ANALYTES WHICH MAY BE                                          DETECTED AND/OR MEASURED USING THE LIGAND/                                    LIGAND RECEPTOR-BASED BIOSENSORS AND                                          SUGGESTED METHODS.sup.a                                                                                  Immobi-                                                                       lized                                              Entry Analyte Species      Receptor Method                                    ______________________________________                                        1     Viruses                                                                       Rubella, Paramyxoviruses                                                                           b, c     e, d                                            (Influenza Mumps, Measles,                                                    Respiratory Syncytial Virus),                                                 Cytomegalovirus, Adenovirus, Ro-                                              tavirus, Retrovirus (Friend Leu-                                              kemia Virus, Radiation Leukemia                                               Virus, Human Immunodeficiency                                                 Virus), Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B,                                             Infectious Mononucleosis, Epstein-                                            Barr Virus, Papillomavirus                                              2     Mycoplasma                                                                    Mycoplasma pneumoniae                                                                              b        e                                         3     Parasites                                                                     Toxoplasma, Giardia, Amebiasis                                                                     b        e                                         4     Bacteria including Aexually-                                                  Transmitted Diseases                                                          Salmonella, Streptococci and                                                                       b        e                                               Anti-Streptolysin O, Legionella,                                              Staphylococci, Hemphilus, Neisser-                                            ia, Chlamydia, Treponema                                                5     Yeasts and Fungi                                                              Candide, Histoplasma, Blastomy-                                                                    b        e                                               coses, Crytococcus, Coccidia                                            6     Allergy-Causing Agents                                                        IgE Total, Screens to Specific                                                                     b, c     e, d                                            Allergens                                                               7     Immunoglobulins and C-Reactive                                                Protein                                                                       IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE (heavy                                                                     b        e                                               and light chains)                                                       8     Hormones                                                                      Adrenocorticotrophic hormone,                                                                      b        e, f                                            Alpha-Fetoprotein, Estriol, Estra-                                            diol, Testosterone, Aldosterone,                                              Androstenedione, Endocrine Func-                                              tion hormones (Cortisol,                                                      Prostaglandin, Human Growth hor-                                              mone and Variants, thereof), Re-                                              productive hormones (Human                                                    Chorionic Gonadotropin, Human                                                 Leutinizing hormone, Follicle-                                                Stimulating hormone)                                                    9     Analytes Useful in Gauging                                                    Thyroid Function                                                              T4, T Uptake, T3, Total Thyroxine,                                                                 b        e                                               Thyroid-Stimulating hormone                                             10    Blood Grouping Factors, Human                                                 Leukocyte Antigen (HLA), and                                                  Platelet Factors                                                              Factor VIII, von Willebrand's,                                                                     b        e                                               Fibrinogen/Fibrin Degradation                                                 Products, Blood Group surface                                                 antigens, HLA antigens, Platelet                                              Factor IV, and other factors                                                  associated with clotting pathways                                             (extrinsic and intrinsic)                                               11    Autoimmune Antigens and Anti-                                                 bodies                                                                        Double-Stranded DNA, Single-                                                                       b, c     e, d                                            Stranded DNA, Rheumatoid                                                      Factor, Smith Antigen, Smith Anti-                                            gen/Ribonucleoprotein, Immune                                                 Complexes, and other associated                                               antigens and antibodies                                                 12    Apolipoproteins and Lipoproteins                                              Apo A-1, Apo A-II, Apo B, Apo                                                                      b        e                                               C-II, Apo C-III, Apo E, HDL,                                                  LDL, VLDL                                                               13    Antibiotics                                                                   Gentamicin, Tobramycin, Amaka-                                                                     b        f                                               cin                                                                     14    Cardiac Glycosides                                                            Digoxin, Digitoxin   b        f                                         15    Antiasthmatic and Antiepileptic                                               Drugs                                                                         Theophylline, Phenytoin                                                                            b        f                                         16    Other Drugs (in the course of a                                               toxicological study, drug screening,                                          drug abuse, etc.)                                                             Procainamide, Phenobarbital,                                                                       b        f                                               Methotrexate, salicylate, etc.                                          17    Tumor Markers, Cancer, and Other                                              Miscellaneous Antigens of Diagnos-                                            tic Value                                                                     Alpha 1 Acid Glycoprotein, Acid                                                                    b        e                                               Phosphatase, Carcinoembryonic                                                 Antigen, CPK BB, Alpha 1 Anti-                                                trypsin, Alpha 2 Antiplasmin,                                                 Beta 2 Microglobulin, Ferritin                                                (anemia), Transferrin, Ceruloplas-                                            min                                                                     ______________________________________                                         .sup.a The content of this table is by no means comprehensive with respec     to the number, type, or scope of suitable analyte species, immobilized        receptor(s), or methods which may be the subject of an analysis carried       out using the ligand/ligand receptorbased biosensor of the present            invention. This table serves only to illustrate the wide range of             molecular species which may be measured and/or detected by a virtually        unlimited number of methods and is not to be construed as limiting the        scope and/or utility of the present invention.                                b Antibody or receptor to given organism, immunoglobulin, antigen,            component, or drug.                                                           c Specific antigen associated with given organism.                            d Indirect method in which analysis is performed for the presence of          specific antibody.                                                            e Double antibody sandwich method.                                            f Competitive method.                                                    

5.2.3. NOVEL ELECTROCHEMICAL DETECTION OF ENZYMATIC BREAKDOWN PRODUCTSOF BCIP AND RELATED ANALOGS OR DERIVATIVES THEREOF

In connection with the enzymatic transformations described herein, ithas been discovered, that 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoxyl phosphate (BCIP),commonly used as a chromogenic substrate for alkaline phosphatase,functions quite efficiently as a substrate for an enzyme-mediatedprocess which ultimately leads to the consumption of dioxygen and theproduction of hydrogen peroxide.

Thus, in a particular embodiment of the present invention, BCIP, or asuitable analog thereof, is used as an agent, in connection with anelectrochemical assay procedure, for effectuating changes in theconcentration of electroactive species. Preferably, the assay procedureand/or the devices used to perform the analyses are chosen from themethods and sensors disclosed herein. However, the present methodemploying BCIP, or a suitable analog thereof, is not so limitedparticularly because macroelectrodes, indeed, any amperometric device,may be used to perform the electrochemical measurements.

Referring now to FIG. 14, a receptor or analyte labeled with an enzyme,preferably alkaline phosphatase, converts the added indoxyl phosphatesubstrate (BCIP) to a hydrolyzed species that forms unstableintermediates. The subsequent auto-oxidation reaction produces indigowith the concommitant consumption of dioxygen and production of hydrogenperoxide. The corresponding change in the concentration of O₂ or H₂ O₂can then be determined electrochemically at a preselected potential aspreviously discussed in Section 5.1, supra. These measurements,consequently, provide a means for correlating the activity of the enzymelabel, as deduced from the electrochemical signal derived from the BCIPreagent chemistry, with the concentration of the analyte of interest.

Again, the electrochemical detection of the electroactive species may beperformed using any amperometric electrochemical device, and suchmeasurement would not be hampered by any turbidity or other conditionwhich may interfere with existing colorimetric or spectrophotometricmeasurements. Preferably, the action of a phosphatase enzyme, includingthe acid phosphatase, on BCIP, or any suitable analog or derivativethereof (e.g., other substituted indoxyl phosphates) capable ofultimately yielding (or consuming) electroactive species, is utilized inconjunction with the microfabricated biosensors of the instant inventionto provide an assay procedure with totally unexpected and unanticipatedefficiency, sensitivity, and clinical applicability.

It should be apparent to those of ordinary skill, however, that,conversely, any indoxyl compound having a functional group in the3-position which is recognized by an enzyme (that is, indoxyl reagentwhich may be hydrolyzed, e.g., R=phosphate, acyl), is consideredequivalent and within the scope of the present electrochemical detectionmethod (See, also, the enzyme/substrate pairs exemplified in Table II).##STR22##

5.3. BLOOD UREA NITROGEN (BUN) SENSOR

The potentiometric chemical sensor for urea can be viewed as a systemwhich is constructed from functionally dissimilar components, as is theglucose sensor (supra). In one embodiment of the blood urea nitrogen(BUN) sensor, the outermost layer, the one in contact with the analytesolution, permits the transport of urea while also serving to immobilizethe enzyme urease. This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea toammonia and carbon dioxide, as follows: ##STR23## At neutral pH values,the ammonia thus produced from Eq. 10 exists predominantly as ammoniumions. By interposing a separate layered structure, which contains anionophore with high sensitivity and selectivity for ammonium ionsbetween the enzyme containing layer and a silver-silver chlorideindicator electrode, the ammonium ion concentration at the electrodeinterface can be measured. In this type of measurement, the potentialdifference between the indicator electrode and a reference electrode isrecorded.

The analytical value of the measurement is derived from the fact thatthe magnitude of the potential difference is related by the Nicolskyequation (Eq. 11, below) to the concentration of the analyte, in thiscase, urea: ##EQU2## where E is the measured electromotive force(signal), R is the gas law constant, T is the absolute temperature, n isthe absolute value of the charge on analyte species a (e.g., n=1 for theammonium ion), F is the Faraday constant, A is the activity of theanalyte species a, B is the activity of an interfering chemical speciesb, k_(a),b is the interference coefficient associated with the effect ofthe presence of chemical species b on the electrochemical potentiometricdetermination of the activity of the analyte species a, and E_(o) is aconstant independent of T, A, or B. For additional discussion of theNicolsky equation, please refer to Amman, D. Ion-SelectiveMicroelectrodes, Springer, Berlin (1986) p. 68 and references citedtherein.

5 3.1. BUN BASE SENSOR

In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the unit cell forthe BUN sensor comprises a thin film silver-silver chloride indicatorelectrode operating in combination with a thin-film silver-silverchloride reference electrode.

Referring now to FIG. 3, the substrate wafer, 20, is silicon, with anoverlaid insulating layer of silicon dioxide, 15. The first metal layer,10, is titanium and serves the same function in the BUN sensor as in theglucose sensor. Succeeding layers 4 and 4', are the silver and silverchloride layers. On the left side of FIG. 3, the remaining layers of theindicator electrode include (i) a semipermeable membrane film, 25,comprising an organic polymer layer (e.g., poly(vinyl chloride) - PVC)and an ammonium ion ionophore; and (ii) the outermost biolayer, 11,comprising in this particular sensor, a film-forming latex (e.g.,poly(vinyl acetate-co-vinyl alcohol)) and a sufficient amount of theenzyme urease.

The reference electrode portion of the unit cell may be comprised ofoverlaid structures as shown in FIG. 3. In this particular embodiment,the metal and chloridized layers of the reference electrode are coveredby an electrolyte layer, 12, which may comprise any material which isable to hold a high concentration of salt but which is, preferably,photoformable. In this respect, a fish gelatin formulation is thepreferred material and may first be photopatterned and subsequentlysaturated with a salt, such as potassium chloride. A separate gaspermeable membrane, 8', may also be present which serves to diminish theloss of electrolyte or salt to the bulk analytical sample but allows therapid wet-up (i.e., passage of H₂ O or other small gaseous molecules) ofthe reference electrode prior to commencing the sample analysis. Thephotoresist cap, 9 which may be a remnant of the patterning process neednot be removed if it does not bar the free passage of solvent, solute,or ions. In a preferred embodiment, the reference electrode structuredescribed in co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 07/156,262, filed Feb.16, 1988, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference,is used. Alternatively, a reference electrode structure in which thedistance between the liquid junction and the surface of thesilver/silver chloride is sufficiently large, such that theconcentration of electrolyte in the immediate vicinity of the Ag/AgClstructure is substantially constant for a period of time sufficient toperform a measurement of the potential difference between the indicatorelectrode and the reference electrode.

As illustrated in FIG. 3, superimposed over the indicator electrode of aBUN sensor is a thick film ammonium ion-sensitive structure comprising apoly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) binder, tris(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate as aplasticizer, and nonactin as the ionophore. The indicator electrode canbe made selective for different ions by using the same binder andplasticizer composition but with different ionophores. For example,valinomycin, monensin and (methyl)monensin, or tridodecylammoniumchloride have been used to make potassium, sodium, or chloride-ionselective electrodes, respectively. Other ionophores may include, butare not limited to crown ethers, trialkylamines, or phosphate esters,and the like. Alternatively, other polymeric binder materials may beused besides PVC. These polymers may include, for example, siliconrubber, polytetrafluoroethylene plastics, or derivatives of PVCcontaining ionizable functional groups (e.g., carboxylates). Otherplasticizers suitable for use in the present invention may include, butare not limited to tris(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate, nitrocymene,2-nitrophenyloctyl ether, dibutyl sebacate, diethyl adipate, phthalates,propylene carbonate, 5-phenylpentanol, or mixtures thereof. Still otherbinders and ionophore combinations may occur to those skilled in the artwhich are within the scope of the present invention. The resultingsemipermeable ion-selective film may have a thickness in the range ofabout 2 μm to about 200 μm, preferably about 10 to about 30 μm.

Referring now to FIG. 4, indicator electrode, 30, and the adjacentreference electrode, 35, are each connected by an overpassivated signalline, 2, to a contact pad, 1. The unit cell is confined within arectangular area, which is repeated in a square array several hundredtimes on a single silicon wafer. In particular embodiments of theinstant invention, other indicator electrodes may be present in thebiosensor for the simultaneous measurement of ionic species (e.g., Na⁺,K⁺, or Cl⁻) in addition to ammonium ion.

5.3.2. BUN BIOLAYER

At this point, it is important to distinguish between the properties ofparticle latices and their film-forming counterparts. A particle latexcomprises a solid polymeric structure, such as polystyrene, which iscoated with a hydrophilic material that allows the polymer particle tobe waterborn. Particle latex materials have been used traditionally toimmobilize all manner of biologically active materials (See, Kraemer, D.et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,710,825). However, an important property ofparticle latices which is unsuitable in the present application is thateven after these materials have been dried, the particles can beredispersed easily in water. By contrast, a film-forming latex is acolloidal solution comprised of a mobile polymeric liquid core, such asa vinyl acetate, with a hydrophilic outer coating. Such a film-forminglatex is made by an emulsion-polymerization process in which awater-immiscible organic monomer or a mixture of monomers is added to anaqueous medium containing a free radical catalyst. The polymerizationmay be initiated, for example, by mechanical agitation (See, forexample, Vanderhoff, J. W., J. Poly. Sci. Polymer Symposium 1985, 72,161-198). When this material is dried the particles coalesce to form afilm which cannot be redispersed in water. Because film-forming laticesare water-based and contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic components,one may speculate that these compositions are able to provide astabilizing environment for biologically active species and constitutean effective medium for the immobilization or incorporation of same.

It has further been found that film-forming latices from both naturaland synthetic sources are of significant utility. For example, thefollowing synthetic monomers, their chemically-modified analogues,copolymers, or mixtures thereof may be used to make a film-forminglatex: vinyl acetate, ethylene, acrylate or acrylic acid, styrene, orbutadiene. These and many other materials known to those skilled in theart are available commercially from many sources including Reichhold,Air Products, DuPont, Dow Chemical, or Imperial Chemical Company.Natural isoprene-based polymers are also useful and available fromImperial Adhesives and Chemicals, Inc. and from General Latex andChemical Corp.

Moreover, it has been discovered that these materials retain theirfilm-forming properties even when non-latex water-soluble components(e.g., proteins, enzymes, polysaccharides such as agarose, or syntheticpolymers such as poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), and thelike) comprise up to about 25% by weight of the solids content. In thisrespect, a significant consideration related to a microfabricationprocess for the production of biosensors is that the established filmadheres effectively to a planar substrate even in the presence of largeamounts of additives (i.e., enzymes).

Various methods can be used to define a layer on a planar substrate. Ifa thick layer (about 5 to about 200 μm) is required, microdispensing ofa viscous film-forming latex composition (<500 Centipoise as measured ona Brookefield RV viscometer) is preferred. However, if a thin layer(about 0.2 to less than about 5 μm) is required, a composition with alower viscosity is used which can be microdispensed directly onto theindicator electrode, or alternatively, either microdispensed orspin-coated onto a positive resist layer (e.g., Shipley AZ 1370 SF)which has been patterned to leave the area over the indicator electrodeexposed. Any suitable solvent known in the art, such as n-butylacetateand the like, is then used to lift off the resist, along with the excesslatex. A separate technique using a photoresist cap may also be used.Specific examples of the "lift-off" and resist cap techniques are givenin the Examples Section, infra.

As in Section 5.1.3 above, control of the surface energy may be usedbeneficially to control the spreading of the microdispensed reagent(and, thus, its dimenionality, such as thickness). A fluorocarbon (e.g.,cF₄) plasma treatment of a polyimide layer surrounding the indicatorelectrode causes the aqueous based latex to exhibit a high contact angle(i.e., minimizes spreading and maximizing thickness).

To immobilize one or more biologically active species in a latex layerit is possible either to mix the species with the latex prior todeposition or impregnate the layer after deposition. The stability ofthe biologically active species, particularly enzymes, is enhanced byadding a crosslinking agent either before or after deposition. Thesecrosslinking agents are well-known in the art and may include suchcompounds as glyoxal, glutaraldehyde, melamine formaldehyde, ureaformaldehyde, and phenol formaldehyde. Other suitable crosslinkingagents may possess at least two functional groups which may includevinyl, carboxyl, anhydride, amine, amide, epoxy, hydroxyl, cyano,isocyanato, thio, halo, in addition to formyl, and stable combinationsof these functional groups (e.g., a chloroalkylepoxide). These additivescan significantly enhance the wet-strength of the biolayer and extendthe shelf-life of the completed biosensor. In almost all instances, oneor more of the biologically active macromolecules listed in thepreceding or following sections of this disclosure may be successfullyimmobilized using a film-forming latex such as Elvace or Elmer's Glue.In some cases, a more responsive sensor may result when using afilm-forming latex compared with the photoformable proteinaceous matrixused in the glucose sensor.

In a particular embodiment of the present invention, a film-forminglatex is used to immobilize the enzyme urease. A higher enzymaticactivity is achieved in this case compared to a urea sensor in which thebiolayer is manufactured from a photoformable fish gelatin.

Furthermore, the porosity of the biolayer can be controlled to asignificant extent by incorporating certain additives, such as salts(e.g., sodium chloride) or sugar alcohols (e.g., mannitol, erythritol,or sorbitol), into the latex mixture prior to deposition. For example,the addition of sorbitol to the latex formation (1 g/dL of solution)significantly decreases the time needed for wet-up of the dessicatedurea sensor. A shorter wet-up period provides, in turn, for a fasterresponse.

5.3.3. PERFORMANCE OF THE BUN SENSOR

FIG. 9 shows the response of the ammonium ion sensor as a function oftime measured against the on-chip reference electrode. The measurementsare done on a sensor starting in the dry state. The initial slowincrease is due to wetting of the sensor by the solution. At the momentthat the unknown solution is injected the sensor responds very quicklyso that measurements can be done within a few seconds. The test solutionchanges concentration from 2 to 20 mM ammonium. The three graphs on thefigure are from different urea sensors and show the uniformity of theresponse.

The response of the BUN sensor to aqueous urea solutions is given inFIG. 10. The initial decrease and subsequent increase is due to thewetting of the sensor. After about 40 seconds the concentration ischanged from 1 to 10 mM urea. The slower response, in comparison to thesensor of FIG. 3, is due to the outer film-forming latex layer throughwhich mass transport is necessary and where also the catalytic reactionoccurs before the ions can reach the underying indicator electrode. TheNicolsky selectivity coefficient are taken into account in determiningthe urea concentration. FIG. 11 shows the response of a BUN sensor towhole blood which has been spiked with urea to elevate the level. Theresponse is similar to the previous one. The BUN sensor has a linearrange between 1 and 20 mM urea and a measurable range up to 40 mM inblood.

5.4. AUTOMATED MICRODISPENSING SYSTEM

An important aspect of the microfabricating process described in thepresent invention is an automated system which is able to microdispenseprecise and programmable amounts of the materials used in the biosensorsof interest. The microdispensing system, which is based on a waferprober (Pacific Western Systems, SP1-C), is comprised of a vacuum chuckand a syringe, each of which are attached to separate means for alteringthe vertical, horizontal, lateral, or rotational displacement of thesekey elements of the system. For the sake of economy, it is sufficient tohave means for changing the vertical displacement of the syringe so longas one can change the position of the vacuum chuck multidirectionally.The movements of both elements may be controlled via a single personalcomputer using customized software (Turbo-C) to drive the machinery. Theposition of the vacuum chuck may be reproducible within ±13 microns orbetter in either x or y directions.

The drop sizes which can be dispensed reproducibly extends over a widerange. For volume sizes between about 5 to about 500 nanoliters (nL),the drops can be applied with a precision of about 5%. A solenoid havinga 0.1% precision rating is sufficient for this purpose. The height ofthe tip of the syringe needle above the biosensor should be betweenabout 0.1 to about 1 mm, depending on the volume to be dispensed:generally, the smaller the volume of the drop, the lower the elevationof the needle from the sensor (Please refer to Section 5.4.1.1, below).

The precise alignment of the syringe needle with the preselected area ofthe biosensor can be achieved optically, if necessary, by means of acamera and a reticle. Such an operation can be performed manually by anoperator or automatically by means of a visual recognition systemincorporating aspects of artificial intelligence. Of course, the rate atwhich material can be dispensed onto the devices is limited by the speedwith which the elements of the system can arrive at their specifiedpositions. However, multiple syringe configurations may be operatedadvantageously as described further below.

Referring now to FIG. 12, a suitable microdispensing system will havethe elements of a vacuum chuck, 1, on which the wafer, 2, is held andthe syringe, 5, holding the material to be microdispensed. The liquidmaterial is applied through a needle, 6, with the aid of pressurizednitrogen or other suitable gas supplied at 10. The flow of thepressurized gas is controlled by a solenoid valve, 9, which providesprecise pulses of gas to dispense predetermined volumes of material. Thesupport arm, 7, may be connected to a means 8 for adjusting the verticalposition, Z, of the syringe and needle. The film-forming latex materialscontaining the appropriate bioactive molecule may be dispensed on thebiosensor chip, 3, at a preselected region, 4. As discussed above, thevacuum chuck is also coupled to a means for varying the displacement ofthe wafer multidirectionally. It is understood, of course, that themeans, 8, may also be varied multidirectionally, if desired.

An alternative embodiment of the instant microdispensing device isillustrated in FIG. 13, which comprises a plurality of independentlycontrollable microdispensing syringe assemblies. These assemblies arepreferably mounted on a circular support, 11, having an opening, 12,below which opening the wafer and vacuum chuck may be positionedappropriately.

Using such a multiple assembly configuration, more than one componentlayer may be established on the biosensor at any given time. Of course,the alignment considerations are more complex in this multiple assemblyconfiguration, the individual needles needing to be positioned overparticular areas of the chip. However, this configuration allows themost flexibility with respect to where the fluids may be dispensed whileaccomplishing the uniform microfabrication processes which are part ofthe primary objectives of the present invention.

5.4.1. FURTHER COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS USEFUL FOR MICRODISPENSINGLOCALIZED DISCRETE FILM LAYERS OF CONTROLLABLE BUT UNIFORM DIMENSIONS

As mentioned briefly in Section 5.1.3, the dimension of a microdispensedlayer (especially its thickness) are governed by a variety of factors.More specifically, the inventors have found that these factors involve,among other things, the volume of and the manner in which a fluid isdispensed, the composition and surface tension of the fluid, and thefree energy characteristics of the surface onto which the fluid isdispensed. The following sections seek to explore more fully theintricate interplay between these multiple factors and how theirindividual and collective effects can be harnessed to provide a morereproducible but versatile manufacturing process.

5.4.1.1. VOLUMETRIC MICRODISPENSING OF FLUIDS

It is useful, at this point, to consider the dynamics involved when asingle drop of fluid is formed at and expelled from a needle needle.

As more fluid is expelled from the needle tip, the drop will grow insize until the gravitational force acting on the mass of the dropexceeds the opposing forces maintaining contact with the needle tip.These opposing forces include the adhesive forces between the needle tipand the fluid or liquid, and surface tension of the liquid itself. It iswell established that at low liquid flow rates where discrete dropformation is complete, the drop volume is fixed. However, the volume maybe changed by varying any of the fluid related parameters discussedabove, or by changing the diameter of the needle tip thus changing theavailable surface area for fluid adhesion. The present inventors havealso demonstrated that the exterior surface of the needle may be coatedwith an additional layer of a material that modifies the fluid adhesion.For example, a hydrophopic polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) coatingapplied to the needle tip reduces the natural drop size of an aqueousbased latex material by reducing the adhesive forces between the dropand the needle tip. Conversely, the needle tip can be coated with ahydrophilic material (e.g., crosslinked poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) toenlarge the volume of the emerging drop before gravity pulls it awayfrom the needle tip. Doubtless, other variations can be readilyconceived by those of ordinary skill, which variations are consideredpart of this invention.

In circumstances where a controlled volume must be microdispensed onto asurface, it has also been discovered that it is possible to have themicrosyringe tip positioned above the planar surface at a height whichdoes not allow the drop to form completely (and then fall to the surfaceunder the influence of gravity), but the partially formed drop actuallycontacts the surface and the new adhesive forces between the liquid andthe surface begin to spread the drop. If the needle tip is now retractedin the Z-direction a sufficient distance away from the surface, then thecohesive forces of the liquid is overcome and a volume of liquid lessthan the fixed drop size would remain in contact with the surface. Thistechnique can be used to dispense reproducibly any volume of liquid fromabout one-one thousandth of the fixed drop size or greater. For example,the present inventors have shown that an 8 nL drop of glycerol could bedispensed reproducibly where the natural drop size would have been 8 μL.

5.4.1.2. FLUID COMPOSITIONS WITH PREDETERMINED SURFACE TENSION

It is well known that the surface tension, α, between a pure liquid andits vapor phase can be changed by adding reagents. For example, if afatty acid is added to water the hydrophilic portion of the molecule iscohesive, whereas the hydrophobic portion-is not, i.e., it resides in ahigh energy solvated state. Minimal work is required to bring thesolvated portion of the molecule to the surface, and thus, the surfacelayer becomes enriched in the non-cohesive portion of the fatty acid,reducing the surface tension.

Conversely, solutes such as ionic salts added to aqueous systemsincrease cohesion (ion-dipole interactions) between water molecules inthe bulk of the fluid, increasing the work required to introduce them tothe surface. The surface tension of the fluid is thus increased.

In the context of the present invention, a brief discussion of theconcept of a contact angle is appropriate. It is known that when a smallamount of liquid is placed on a planar solid surface, the liquid doesnot wet the surface completely (continue to spread indefinitely) butremains as a localized drop having a defined contact angle, θ.

    cos θ=(α.sub.SV -α.sub.SL)/α.sub.LV

where α_(SV) is the surface tension between the surface and the vapor,α_(SL) is the surface tension between the surface and the liquid, andα_(LV) involves the liquid/vapor surface tension. The geometry of thedrop and its associated contact angle reflect a balance between thecohesive forces between molecules in the liquid and adhesive forcesbetween the liquid and the surface. Where cohesive forces dominate, thecontact angle is high and when adhesive forces dominate the contactangle is low (See, for example, FIG. 15). Clearly, a hydrophilic liquidwill have a low contact angle on a hydrophilic surface, whereas ahydrophobic liquid will have a high contact angle. If the contact angle,θ is greater than 90° the surface is said to be nonwetting. Simpleoptical instrumentation is available for measuring contact angles.

The microdispensable fluid compositions of the present invention areprepared to have a controlled optimized surface tension. Suitableadditives are used when necessary. The hydrophobicity or hydrophilicityof the fluid is controlled in the same manner. Where a cured membrane isrequired as the end product, the solids content and volatile solventscontent are carefully adjusted. Moreover, the ratio of these componentsis also used to control the viscosity.

The preferred microdispensable compositions for application onto a givensurface are described further in the Example Section. In particular,examples for formulations are provided for establishing layers which aresensitive to Cl⁻, Na⁺, K⁺, pH, NH₄ ⁺, and Ca⁺⁺ ions. These compositionscomprise PVC polymer, plasticizers, ionophores and solvents withviscosities generally higher than those used for planar casting (e.g.,spin-coating) of membranes. It has been found that these higherviscosity compositions cure or dry without deformation of the membranelayer. Related problems, e.g., that of ensuring the homogeneity of thematrix at high viscosity and thus preventing phase separation ofmaterials after time (i.e., considerations related to shelf-life) arealso alleviated by these novel compositions. Other additives are alsoused to prevent long term degradation of the membranes. Finally, thesolvent system is selected to provide the appropriate surface tensionand stability. For K⁺, Na⁺, NH₄ ⁺, pH and Ca⁺⁺ sensors, the solidscontent (wt %) of plasticizer, PVC polymer, and ionophore are preferably60-80%, 15-40% and 0.5-3%, respectively. For the Cl⁻ sensor, ratios of25-40% plasticizer, 25-45% PVC, and 25- 35% ionophore are preferred.

5.4.1.3. METHODS FOR TAILORING THE SURFACE ENERGY OF A PLANAR STRUCTURE

In addition to the factors described above relating to controlledvolumetric dispensing of fluids having an optimized surface tensionassociated with a prescribed composition, the present inventors havediscovered that tailoring the surface free energy of the substrate, orsurface onto which the fluid is dispensed, provides an unexpected degreeof control over the final dimensions, especially the thickness, of theresulting layer. Even more surprising, it has been discovered that aprocess which combines these techniques gives predictable andreproducible results. Furthermore, the resulting process is highlyversatile, allowing the deposition of arrays of biolayers of variedcomposition and utility.

As an example, consider a sensor consisting of a silver/silver chlorideelectrode with a polyimide layer extending away from the electrodeperimeter. If a control fluid, e.g., a mixture of 80% glycerol and 20%water, is dispensed onto the surface, a contact angle of 50° isattained. Pretreating the surface with a tetrafluoromethane plasmarenders the polyimide surface more hydrophobic. If the same controlfluid is now dispensed over the CF₄ -treated surface, contact angles of50° to 120° are attained.

Alternatively, if the polyimide surface is first treated with an oxygenplasma, the surface is made more hydrophilic and contact angles of 10°to 50° are attained with the same control fluid.

Referring now to the figures, FIG. 15a is a representation of theperimeter of a silver/silver chloride electrode circumscribed by apolyimide layer. FIG. 15b is the corresponding elevational view of theelectrode. As depicted in FIGS. 15c, 15d, and 15e, the contact angle θ,is small for a microdispensed hydrophilic fluid resting on a polyimidesurface which had been exposed to an O₂ plasma. The contact angle islarger if the surface is untreated and increases further if the surfaceis first treated with a CF₄ plasma. Thus, the configuration of thedispensed fluid over a given surface is manageable to a large extent bya careful choice of the conditions to which the given surface is (or isnot) subjected.

During plasma treatment two net processes may occur either the surfaceis etched, e.g., surface material reacts with the plasma and is removed,or material is deposited from the plasma onto the surface. Therefore,the nature of the surface is as important as that of the plasma. Thefollowing table can be constructed summarizing the effect of differentplasmas on different surfaces.

    ______________________________________                                               PLASMA GAS                                                                                              O.sub.2, H.sub.2, H.sub.2 O,                 SURFACE  CF.sub.4    CHF.sub.3   Argon, N.sub.2                               ______________________________________                                        Silicon  etching/    deposition/ etching/                                     Dioxide  hydrophilic hydrophilic hydrophilic                                  Polyimide                                                                              deposition/ deposition/ etching                                               hydrophobic hydrophobic hydrophilic                                  Silver   etching/    deposition/ etching/                                              hydrophilic hydrophobic hydrophilic                                  ______________________________________                                    

Such processes have the clear advantage of modifying a surface, in acontrolled manner, from one which is highly wettable to one which isnon-wettable. The effective contact angle of the control material isdetermined by the composition of the gas and the power, duration, andpressure of the plasma.

Prior to microdispensing the preferred fluid compositions describedabove, the silicon wafers with microfabricated base sensors andpolyimide passivation layers may be plasma treated under any of theabove listed conditions. Hence, the argon plasma has the effect ofetching the surface (hydrophilic), whereas the CF₄ plasma makes thesurface more hydrophobic. Ultimately, a tailored surface energy affordscontrol over the spreading of the material of a microdispensed fluid ormembrane material. Control over the spreading affords control over themembrane thickness. Control over the membrane thickness leads, in turn,to highly reproducible membrane response characteristics.

For establishing thick membranes, (e.g., 40-60 μm thick), the surface ispreferably tailored so that the contact angle which the microdispensedfluid makes with the surface is large. For example, before an aqueouslatex membrane is microdispensed, the surface is first plasma treated toyield a contact angle for water (control fluid) in the range 50°-70°.This point is illustrated in FIG. 16a for a potentiometric ammonium ionsensor.

For thin membranes the surface is tailored to have a low contact anglefor the dispensed fluid (e.g., for a 1 μm NPR enzyme layermicrodispensed as an aqueous solution, the contact angle may be 10°-30°(See, FIG. 16b).

In a specific embodiment of the present invention, the surface energy ofthe perimeter of an electrode surface is tailored in such a fashion tocreate conditions under which one obtains the desired membrane thicknessupon dispensing of a given volume of a photoformable proteinaceousmixture. The dispensed fluid flows in a controlled manner and produces afilm of a controlled thickness. As illustrated in FIG. 16c, subsequentexposure of the resulting film to active radiation, at preselected areasof the photoresist film, renders those exposed areas insoluble to adeveloping medium. A patterned layer is obtained after the developmentstep. The dimensions of the resulting layer are controlled, therefore,in a manner and degree not unlike that obtained through spin-coating. Amajor difference, of course, is that by employing the methods of thepresent process, numerous types of membranes, bearing a variety ofbioactive molecules, can be established in a single wafer withoutcompromising the control and reproductibility of an idealmicrofabrication process. Hence, a multiple syringe assembly, such asthat illustrated in FIG. 13, may be employed to dispense several typesof biolayers. All the resulting layers may then be localized further topreselected areas of the electrode by exposure to a singlephotopatterning step.

5.5. CREATININE AND CREATINE SENSORS

Preferred embodiments for a creatinine sensor and a creatine sensor arealso described in the Examples section of the disclosure. To attain themaximum activity of the immobilized enzymes for the creatinine assay,creatinine amidohydrolase and sarcosine oxidase are immobilized in aphotoformed gelatin layer. The creatinase is then immobilized in afilm-forming latex applied as an overlaid structure. The creatine sensoris constructed in a similar manner, with the creatinine amidohydrolasebeing omitted from the gelatin layer. As these examples show structuresand processes which combine the photoformable gelatins with thefilm-forming latices are readily obtained.

5.6. OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

The sensors described herein are designed to be compatible with adisposable sensing device. For a disposable sensing device for use inreal time fluid analysis (See, co-pending U.S. application Ser. No.07/245,102, the entire disclosures of which is incorporated herein byreference). These sensors must therefore have the capability ofretaining an excess amount of enzyme to ensure an extended shelf-lifewhen stored dry. The layers must be thin enough and permeable enough,however, such that wet-up, calibration, and a measurement of an analytein a biological fluid can all be performed in real time, preferablywithin a total of about one minute. With respect to the amperometricsensor for glucose, electrical pulsing of the electrocatalyst prior tothe calibration and measurement steps, is advised to activate theelectrocatalyst surface and help ensure the highest possible hydrogenperoxide currents. These sensors are also designed to be compatible witha static-free interrogating (SMART) connector for electrical components(See, co-pending U.S application Ser. No. 187,665, the completedisclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference). The followingexamples serve to illustrate the general aspects of the presentinvention and are not to be construed as limiting, in any way, its scopeand utility. Other embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinaryskill which do not depart significantly from the scope and spirit of thepresent invention and may, therefore, be deemed equivalent thereto.

6. EXAMPLES 6.1. GLUCOSE SENSOR 6.1.1. BASE SENSOR FABRICATION WITHSIGNAL LINE PASSIVATION

The preferred design for a glucose sensor is a unit cell which comprisestwo identical iridium catalytic electrodes both surrounded by a singlesilver-silver chloride combined reference and counter electrode (See,FIGS. 1 and 2). Each of the three electrodes is connected by anover-passivated signal line to one of three contact pads. The unit cellis confined within a rectangular area which is repeated in a squarearray several hundred times on a single substrate, in this case, asilicon wafer.

A four-inch diameter silicon wafer with a topical layer of silicondioxide, which had previously been cleaned scrupulously with aconcentrated mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, is placedinto a plasma deposition system. Layers of titanium (0.1 μm) and silver(0.5 μm) are sputtered consecutively onto the wafer surface. The silveris then processed to localize it to a region which in the final deviceacts as the combined reference and counter electrode. This step isachieved by a standard lithographic technique in which the wafer isspin-coated with positive resist (Shipley, AZ 1370 SF). After UVexposure of the photoresist through a mask and development (Shipley, AZ351), the exposed silver is removed by using a 0.9M aqueous solution offerric nitrate as the etchant. N-methylpyrrolidone solvent is used toremove the remaining photoresist, thus exposing the required silverstructure. The underlying titanium layer is then processed to leavematerial in regions which act as either a contact pad or a signal line.This process is achieved by repeating the same lithographic process, asdescribed above for silver, with the exception that a 3.9M aqueousmixture of nitric acid also containing 0.78M of hydrofluoric acid isused as the etchant.

To passivate the signal lines a photo-definable polyimide (DuPont 2703)is spin-coated onto the wafer. Once the wafer has been exposed to UVlight and developed with a solvent mixture of butyrolactone and xylene(6:4 v/v), the polymer is heated and "imidized" in an oven at about 350°C. for about 30 minutes under an inert atmosphere and left to cool toabout 150° C. before removal.

To fabricate the iridium catalytic electrode, positive photoresist(Shipley, AZ 1370 SF) is patterned as described above. A layer ofiridium (0.1 μm) is then sputtered onto the wafer. Excess photoresistand excess metal on the resist are then removed by treatment withN-methylpyrrolidone to leave an octagonal (width 200 μm) iridium layer.The areas of silver are then chloridized by dipping the entire waferinto a 12 mM aqueous solution of potassium dichromate also containing 60mM hydrochloric acid.

To sensitize the catalytic electrode specifically to glucose, additionallayers are established on the base sensor.

6.1.2. PERMSELECTIVE SILANE LAYER

An alcoholic solution of the silane compound,N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, is prepared as follows:10 g of a mixture comprising the silane (2 mL), water (9 mL), andethanol (90 mL) is mixed with 50 g of ethanol. A sufficient amount ofthis alcoholic silane solution is spin-coated onto a wafer. The wafer isthen baked in an oven at about 90°-250° C. for about 5-30 minutes.

Alternatively, the silane layer can be established on preselected areas(i.e., over the catalytic electrode surface) of the silicon wafer havingthe base sensor in place. Hence, a layer of positive photoresist(Shipley, AZ 1370 SF) is spin-coated across the wafer and soft-baked atabout 90° C. for 30 minutes. It is then patterned as describedpreviously to leave the area over the catalytic electrode exposed. A 0.5g/dL solution of N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane indeionized water is then spin-coated onto the wafer and baked at about90° C. for 15 minutes under an inert atmosphere. Excess polymerizedsilane and photoresist is then removed by means of ultrasonication inn-butylacetate for about 15 minutes. After the photoresist is removedthe wafer is post-baked at about 160° C. for 15 minutes. This "lift-off"process yields a wafer in which the silane layer is localized over thecatalytic electrode.

If one prefers, the silane layer may also be established locally bymeans of a photoresist cap. A typical procedure is outlined below:

A silicon wafer with a patterned array of amperometric electrochemicalsensors, in which the catalytic working electrode is a thin-film ofiridium metal and the reference electrode is silver-silver chloride, isspin-coated with a 0.5 g/dL solution of N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane in deionized water. The wafer is then heated to about160° C. for about 15 minutes. The wafer is then spin-coated withpositive photoresist (Shipley, AZ 1370 SF), soft-baked at about 100° C.for about 60 seconds, and then patterned by means of exposure toultraviolet light through a mask. The resist is then developed (Shipley,AZ 351) to leave a resist cap over the catalytic iridium workingelectrode. The wafer is then etched in a 1/500 fold dilution ofhydrofluoric acid (10 M) in deionized water to remove excess polymerizedN-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane. Other protic solvents,such as lower alkanols, may be used as the solvent for the hydrofluoricacid. Mixtures of protic solvents may also be used. Typically theconcentration of hydrofluoric acid in the protic solvent lies in therange of about 0.001 to about 0.01 weight percent. The resist cap isthen removed by exposure of the wafer to n-butylacetate followed byultrasonication for 15 minutes. The above procedure leaves the silanelayer only on the catalytic electrodes.

In an alternative method, the wet etch step involving hydrofluoric acidis replaced by a dry etch using an oxygen plasma, achieving similarresults.

6.1.3. PHOTOFORMABLE FISH GELATIN AS SUPPORT MATRIX FOR BIOLAYER

Photoformable fish gelatin containing ferric ammonium citrate asphotoinitiator may be purchased from Norland Products, Inc., NewBrunswick, N.J. These negative photoresists (the commercial materialsare referred to as NPR followed by an integer) may also be preparedfresh by mixing aqueous solutions of fish gelatin (cold water fish skinsold as a 45% aqueous solution by Sigma Chemical Company, Cat. No. G7765), metal complex, and a crosslinking agent.

A sugar alcohol, such as sorbitol or mannitol, may also be included inthe formulation to alter the porosity of the photoformed matrix. Asnoted previously, a commercial formulation known as NPR 6, whichcontains a chromium-based photoinitiator, may also be used.

The enzyme biocatalyst, glucose oxidase (in the present example), may bemixed into the NPR or freshly prepared fish gel mixture and spin-coatedacross the base sensor wafer. A typical formulation may comprise about 2to about 35 g/dL fish gelatin, about 2 to about 100 mM metal complex,about 2 to about 100 mM crosslinking agent, and about 1 to about 25mg/mL enzyme. The formulation may also contain about 0.1 to about 10g/dL sugar alcohol and about 0.001 to about 1 g/dL of a detergent. Apreferred formulation comprises 10% fish gelatin, 13.3 mM ferriccitrate, 13.3 mM N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide, and 6.7 mg/mL glucoseoxidase. Another suitable formulation comprises NPR-29 (diluted withdeionized water to a final protein content of 10% by weight of the totalmixture), glucose oxidase (6.7 mg/mL), sorbitol (2 g/dL), and TritonX-100 (0.03 g/dL). The pH of the fish gelatin or NPR formulations may beadjusted with added carbonate or sodium hydroxide, if desired, to a pHabove about 4 before addition of the enzyme. Most preferably, the pH ofthe formulation should be greater than about 4 but less than about 9 toprevent a significant inactivation of the biocatalyst.

The amount of proteinaceous material applied on the wafer can be variedto adjust the thickness of the final biolayer. Preferably, thisthickness is about 0.1 μm. More economically, the formulations may bemicrodispensed directly over the indicator electrodes of the basesensors. The wafers are then exposed to UV light (6 mW/cm², 30 seconds)through an appropriate mask and developed in 1 g/dL aqueous hydrogenperoxide for about 20 seconds.

Alternatively, the protein matrix may be established and patterned onthe wafer without the enzyme present. The entire wafer may then beimmersed in an aqueous solution of the enzyme glucose oxidase (Sigmatype VII: 150 IU/mg) at a concentration of 20 mg/mL for 2 minutes. Thisprocedure is effective to impregnate the gelatin layer with a sufficientamount of enzyme. Excess enzyme can be removed by washing the wafer withwater.

6.1.4. GLUCOSE SENSOR WITHOUT SIGNAL LINE PASSIVATION AND USE OFCHROMIUM-BASED NPR MATRIX

An alternative design for a glucose sensor is a unit cell whichcomprises two identical iridium catalytic electrodes both surrounded bya single silver-silver chloride combined reference and counter electrode(See, FIGS. 1 and 2). Each of the three electrodes is connected by anunpassivated signal line to one of three contact pads. Elimination ofthe passivation step reduces the number of manufacturing steps. Theabsence of the passivation layer also reduces the gross topography onthe wafer and allows better control of the thickness of materials whichare subsequently spin-coated across the wafer. The unit cell is confinedwithin a rectangular area which is repeated in a square array severalhundred times on a single substrate, in this case, a silicon wafer.

A four-inch diameter silicon wafer with a topical layer of silicondioxide, which had previously been cleaned scrupulously with aconcentrated mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide, is placedinto a plasma deposition system. Layers of titanium (0.1 μm) and silver(0.5 μm) are sputtered consecutively onto the wafer surface. The silveris then processed to localize it to a region which in the final deviceacts as the combined reference and counter electrode and the contactpads. This step is achieved by a standard lithographic technique inwhich the wafer is spin-coated with positive resist (Shipley, AZ 1370SF). After UV exposure of the photoresist through a mask and development(Shipley, AZ 351), the exposed silver is removed by using a 0.9M aqueoussolution of ferric nitrate as the etchant. N-methylpyrrolidone solventis used to remove the remaining photoresist, thus exposing the requiredsilver structure.

To fabricate the iridium catalytic electrode, positive photoresist(Shipley, AZ 1370 SF) is patterned as described above on the wafer andthen a layer of iridium (0.1 μm) is sputtered onto the wafer. Excessphotoresist is then removed by treatment with N-methylpyrrolidone toleave an octagonal (width 200 μm) iridium layer. The underlying titaniumlayer is then processed to leave material in regions which act as eithera contact pad or a signal line. this process is achieved by repeatingthe same lithographic process, as described above for silver, with theexception that a 0.78M aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid is used asthe etchant.

The areas of silver are then chloridized by dipping the entire waferinto a 12 mM aqueous solution of potassium dichromate also containing 60mM hydrochloric acid. The remaining photoresist is then removed withN-methylpyrrolidone.

The silane layer is then localized over the iridium electrode with theaid of photolithographic techniques described previously in Section6.1.2, above. After the silane-coated wafer is baked at about 160° C.for about 15 minutes, Norland NPR material, diluted to 7.5 g/dL solidsand also containing the enzyme glucose oxidase (Sigma type VII:150IU/mg) at a concentration of 20 mg/mL, is spin-coated onto the wafer toprovide a coating about 0.1 μm in thickness. After UV exposure throughthe appropriate mask, the enzyme-containing negative photoresist isdeveloped in water providing a self-aligned biolayer positioned directlyover the iridium indicator electrode.

6.1.5. ANALYTE ATTENUATION (AA) LAYER

Dimethylsiloxane-bisphenol A carbonate copolymer (3 g/dL solution)dissolved in a solvent mixture of phenetole and dichloromethane (4:1v/v) is spin-coated onto the wafer. Subsequently, the wafer is etchedfor 10 seconds in an argon plasma. A layer (0.2 μm) of NPR (diluted to15 g/dL solids) is then spin-coated over the siloxane copolymer. Thegelatin layer is exposed to UV light through a mask and developed inwater to provide a protective octagonal cap 450 μm in width, centeredover the catalytic iridium electrode and above the underlying siloxanecopolymer. The excess unprotected siloxane is then removed by a wetetching agent (a 17 g/dL solution of tetramethylammonium hydroxide in asolvent mixture of methanol and isopropylalcohol (2:1 v/v)). The waferis then Washed and diced into individual sensors and stored essentiallydry under a controlled humidity environment.

As noted earlier, numerous enzymes may be immobilized by a processsimilar to that described above. Persons skilled in the art need onlycarry out a minimum amount of experimentation to determine thefeasibility of immobilizing a given enzyme or mixture of enzymes. Inaddition to fish gelatin, other materials, such as bovine or human serumalbumin (BSA or HSA), gamma-globulin, casein, or other animal gelatinsmay serve as possible sources of protein provided that a givencombination of protein, crosslinking agent, photoinitiator, and otheradditives is found to have suitable negative photoresistcharacteristics.

6.2. PREPARATION OF LLR-BASED BIOSENSORS AND METHODS FOR THE USE THEREOF6.2.1. BASE SENSOR FABRICATION

A four inch diameter silicon wafer with a topical layer of silicondioxide which had previously been unscrupulously cleaned with aconcentrated mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide is placedinto a plasma deposition system and layers of titanium (about 0.1 μm)and silver (about 0.5 μm) are sputtered onto the wafer surface. Thesilver is then processed by standard lithographic techniques to localizeit to a region which in the final device acts as the combined referenceand counter electrode (See, e.g., Level 4, FIG. 17A). The wafer isspin-coated with positive resist (AZ 1370 SF), subjected to UV exposureof the photoresist through a mask, and then developed (AZ 351). Theexposed silver is removed by using an aqueous solution of ferric nitrate(0.9M) as the etchant. Removal of the remaining photoresist to exposethe required silver structure is done with N-methylpyrrolidone. Theunderlying titanium layer is then processed to leave material in regionswhich act as either a contact pad or a signal line. This step isachieved by repeating the same lithographic process, as describedpreviously for silver, with the exceptions that a different mask is usedand the etchant is an aqueous mixture comprising nitric acid (3.9M) andhydrofluoric acid (0.78M). To passivate the signal lines aphoto-definable polyimide (DuPont 2703) is spin-coated onto the wafer.Once the wafer is UV exposed and developed with a mixture ofbutyrolactone and xylene (6:4 v/v), the polymer was imidized in an ovenat 350° C. for 30 minutes in an inert atmosphere and allowed to cool to150° C. before removal from the oven.

To fabricate the catalytic electrode, positive photoresist (AZ 1370 SF)is patterned on the wafer and then a layer of the electrocatalyst metalis sputtered onto the wafer. For iridium such deposition is preferablycarried out at a rate of about 0.4 nm/sec to a thickness of about 20 nm;for gold, the preferred rate of deposition is about the same but to athickness of about 100-120 nm. Excess photoresist is removed bytreatment with N-methylpyrrolidone to leave an octagonal (width 200 μm)catalytic layer (See, Level 5, FIG. 1).

The areas of silver were then chloridized by dipping the entire waferinto an aqueous solution comprising potassium dichromate (12 mM) andhydrochloric acid (60 mM).

6.2.2. POST-PROCESSING OF BASE SENSOR

After processing, the wafers are scribed. For example, wafers which areabout 0.46 mm thick, are scribed (partially diced) along both the X andY axes defined by the rectangular unit cell of the sensor such thatabout 0.18 mm of the silicon substrate remains. This technique providesthe necessary structural integrity for the steps which follow, (e.g.,deposition of the biolayers) but permits the easy separation of thewafer into individual sensors upon completion of the process.

The base sensors, exemplified above are processed further into LLR-basedbiosensors by establishing additional layers which have an affinity forthe desires analyte species. Methods for establishing additionalsuitable layers are described further.

6.2.3. LAYERS FOR THE DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF HUMAN IgG

This particular embodiment comprises two additional layers above theiridium base sensor: a silane layer which permits dioxygen and hydrogenperoxide transport and also serves as an anchor to which the secondlayer of an immunologically reactive first member is covalently bound.

To establish the silane layer onto the wafer, a 0.05 g/dL solution ofN-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane in a mixture ofisopropanol:water (92:8, v/v) is spin-coated onto the scribed wafer andbaked in an oven at 90° C. for 20 minutes. The wafer is allowed to coolto ambient temperature. Subsequently, the layer is patterned in themanner described previously in Section 6.1.2. The wafer is then soakedin a 1 g/dL aqueous solution of glutaraldehyde for 1 hour at ambienttemperature and, afterwards, air-dried at ambient temperature.

A solution (100 nL) containing 2.65 mg/mL of goat anti-human IgGantibody (first member) in 0.01M sodium phosphate buffer with 0.25MNaCl, pH 7.6, is then microdispensed automatically onto individualiridium electrodes on the wafer. During microdispensing, the wafer isplaced in a controlled humidity chamber, to prevent drying, at ambienttemperature for 20 minutes. Unbound receptor is then removed by washingthe wafer with deionized water. The sensor may then be stored dry.

6.2.4. ANALYTE: THEOPHYLLINE

A wafer having base sensors equipped with gold catalytic electrodes isprocessed in exactly the manner described in Section 6.2.3. with theexception that microdispensing of the first member utilized ananti-theophylline antibody.

6.2.5. AN LLR-BASED BIOSENSOR FOR HUMAN IgG EQUIPPED WITH UNDERLYINGELECTROLYTE AND GAS PERMEABLE LAYERS

A wafer with gold catalytic electrodes as described above is spin-coatedwith a mixture of negative photoreist NPR 6 (by Norland, New Brunswick,N.J.) to provide a layer having a thickness of about 1 μm. The coatedwafer is then introduced to an oxygen plasma for 10 seconds, before asolution of siloxane-nonsiloxane copolymer, dimethylsiloxane bisphenol Acarbonate available from Petrarch, Pa. (6 g/dL in chlorobenzene), isspin-coated onto the wafer to provide a layer having a thickness ofabout 0.7 μm. The wafer is again exposed to an oxygen plasma for 10seconds. Finally a second layer of negative photoresist, NPR 6, isestablished on the wafer at a thickness of about 0.7 μm.

The wafer is then exposed to UV radiation through a mask correspondingto the area over the electrode structures. The topmost layer of negativeresist is developed in deionized water for 5 seconds to provide a capfor etching the underlying siloxane-nonsiloxane copolymer layer (gaspermeable). Etching of the copolymer layer is achieved with a 0.2Msolution of potassium hydroxide in a mixture of methanol and isopropanol(1:5 parts by volume). Finally the bottom (first) layer of negativephotoresist is developed in deionized water.

After the wafer is washed and scribed, goat anti-human IgG antibody isimmobilized onto the sensor surface in the manner described previouslyin Section 6.2.3., preferably with a glutaraldehyde crosslinker. Theresulting structure resembles that shown in FIG. 7A except that theligand receptor or immunoreactive species is also present over thephotoresist layer, 9.

6.2.6. ALTERNATIVE THEOPHYLLINE BIOSENSOR

A set of three layers based on negative photoresist and a siloxanenon-siloxane copolymer as described in Section 6.2.5. are fabricatedwith one change in the process. After spin-coating of the first NPR 6layer, the wafer is exposed to UV radiation through a mask correspondingto the preselected areas over the electrode and then developed indeionized water. Subsequently, the additional siloxane non-siloxanecopolymer and NPR 6 layers are deposited and patterned in a mannercorresponding to the enclosed structure of FIG. 7B.

After washing and scribing, the wafer is further processed to establishthe immobilized ligand receptor layer, in this case an anti-theophyllineantibody layer. The final structure resembles that illustrated in FIG.8B.

6.2.7. ASSAY PROCEDURE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF HUMAN IgG

Affinity purified goat anti-human IgG is immobilized on amicrofabricated LLR-based biosensors as described in Sections 6.2.1 to6.2.3. An equal volume of a test serum containing human IgG (analyte)and enzyme-labeled antibody (goat anti-human IgG-enzyme) are pre-mixedand 5 μL of the resulting mixture are added to the immunosensor. Samplesof Phosphate Buffered Saline (2.5 mM Sodium Phosphate Monobasic, 7 5 mMSodium Phosphate Dibasic, and 0.145M Sodium Chloride, pH 7.2), or wholeblood containing human Immunoglobulin G, mixed with an equal volume ofgoat anti-human Immunoglobulin G labeled with alkaline phosphatase canbe used instead of the serum sample. An LLR-based biosensor, asdescribed in Section 6.2.5, is also suitable, indeed preferable, in thepresent method.

The immunosensor and the mixture are then incubated for about 15 minutesat about 37° C. to allow for the binding of the human IgG in the testserum to the goat anti-human IgG (capture receptor) immobilized on theimmunosensor. The immunosensor is washed briefly to remove anynon-specifically bound proteins. The washing can be effected using afirst wash with distilled and deionized water containing 0.1% (v/v)Tween 20 (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate); and a second wash stepusing only deionized water. This wash step may alternatively beaccomplished by the introduction of a solution containing 3.0 mM indoxylphosphate, a substrate for alkaline phosphatase. This addition results,eventually, in the production of hydrogen peroxide and the consumptionof dioxygen. The amount of electroactive species produced or consumed isdirectly proportional to the amount of human IgG in the serum. In assaysconsuming dioxygen, the presence of 10 ng/mL immunoglobulin G can bedetected. The entire assay is accomplished in less than twenty minutes.However, it will be appreciated that the sensitivity of the assay may beadjusted by varying the concentrations or incubation times.

Standard curves can be stored preferably as a linear function in theelectronics memory of the overall device (See, for example, priorco-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 245,102). It is understood thatchange in hydrogen peroxide may also be detected, using, preferably, aniridium metal electrocatalyst.

6.2.8. ASSAY PROCEDURE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF THEOPHYLLINE

An affinity purified mouse anti-theophylline antibody is immobilizedonto an LLR-based biosensor as described in Sections 6.2.4 and 6.2.6,supra. An equal volume of a test serum containing theophylline andenzyme-labeled theophylline are pre-mixed. A portion of the resultingmixture (5 uL) is added to the immunosensor. The mixture is thenincubated with the immunosensor for a finite time at a fixedtemperature, for example, at 15 minutes at 37° C., to allow for thebinding of the theophylline in the sample to the immobilized antibody onthe immunosensors. The immunosensor is then washed briefly to remove anynon-specifically bound proteins. The washing can be effected using afirst wash with distilled and deionized water containing 0.1% (v/v)Tween 20, followed by a second wash step using only deionized water.Alternatively, a solution containing 3.0 mM indoxyl phosphate, asubstrate for alkaline phosphatase is then added, serving as the washsolution and resulting in the production of hydrogen peroxide andconsumption of dioxygen. The amount of electroactive species produced orconsumed gives rise to a change in the concentration of theelectroactive species of interest, which change is inverselyproportional to the amount of theophylline in the sample. In assaysconsuming dioxygen, the presence of less than 2.5 ug/mL theophylline canbe detected. The entire assay is accomplished in less than about twentyminutes. It will be appreciated that the sensitivity of the assay may beadjusted by varying the concentrations or incubation times.

6.3. URIC ACID SENSOR

The preferred embodiment for a uric acid sensor utilizes the base sensordescribed previously for a glucose sensor. Also, although the design ofthe biolayers is the same as for the glucose sensor, the fabrication ofthe biolayers is slightly different.

A 0.3 g/dL solution of N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane ina solvent mixture of ethanol and water (92:8 v/v) is spin-coated ontothe base sensor wafer and baked in an oven at 170° C. for 15 minutes.Photoformable fish gelatin (Norland NPR) is then mixed (1:4 parts) witha solution of uricase (Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 6.63 IU/mg) and automaticallymicrodispensed directly over the catalytic iridium electrodes of thewafer. Sufficient material (10-100 nL) is deposited in this technique toallow for the coverage of an area about three times the diameter of thecatalytic iridium electrode. After drying, the wafer is UV exposedthrough a mask and developed in a solution of 0.6% hydrogen peroxide toyield a self-aligned cross linked gelatin/uricase layer having athickness of about 0.6 μm positioned directly over the catalytic iridiumelectrode.

A 3 g/dL solution of dimethylsiloxane-bisphenol A carbonate polymerdissolved in a solvent mixture of phenetole and dichloromethane (2:1v/v) is spin-coated onto the wafer. Subsequently the wafer is etched for10 seconds in an argon plasma. A layer (1.0 μm) of photoformable gelatin(Norland NPR) is then spin-coated over the siloxane copolymer. Once thegelatin layer is UV exposed and developed in water to provide aprotective cap self-aligned above the catalytic iridium electrode andover the underlying siloxane copolymer, excess siloxane is removed by awet etching agent (a 17 g/dL solution of tetramethylammonium hydroxidein a mixture of methanol and isopropylalcohol (2:1 v/v)). The wafer isthen washed and diced into individual sensors: these sensors are storedessentially dry in a controlled humidity environment.

6.4. CO-PROCESSED GLUCOSE AND CHOLESTEROL SENSOR

The preferred embodiment for a dual-analyte combined sensor that isprocessed with a single development step for the enzyme layers isdescribed for glucose and cholesterol.

A silicon wafer, processed by standard microfabrication techniquesdescribed above, in the preferred embodiment for the single glucosesensor, is used. The wafer which is 0.46 mm thick is partially diced orscribed along both the X and Y axes defined by the rectangular unit cellof the sensor, such that only about 0.18 mm of the silicon substrateremains. This procedure provides the necessary structural integrity forthe steps which follow, but permits the easy cleavage of the wafer intoindividual sensors at the end of the process.

The wafer is spin-coated with a solution of 0.3 g/dLN-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (ethanol:water, 99:1,v/v) and then heated under an inert atmosphere at about 170° C. forabout 15 minutes. A mixture (0.15 mL) containing 0.07M sodium carbonate,2.0 g/dL sorbitol, 0.033 g/dL Triton X-100 (PEG, Rohm and Haas), 6.7mg/mL glucose oxidase (Sigma type VII; 150 IU/mg), and 0.05 mL of a fishgelatin (Norland NPR 29) is applied to the center of the catalyticiridium electrode using an automated microdispensing device. The volumeis adjusted (10-100 nL) such that the liquid spreads over an areaapproximately three times the diameter of the catalytic iridiumelectrode.

A second mixture of the same composition as above but containing 6.7mg/mL of cholesterol oxidase (Toyobo type A; 261 IU/mg) is then appliedby the same technique to the adjacent catalytic iridium electrode oneach sensor.

After drying under ambient conditions, the wafer is exposed to UV lightthrough a mask so that only the region above each catalytic iridiumelectrode receives light. Then the wafer is developed by immersion andgentle agitation for 20 seconds in freshly prepared 0.1 g/dL aqueoushydrogen peroxide to yield crosslinked gelatin/enzyme layers about 0.5μm in thickness self-aligned over the catalytic iridium electrodes.

Alternatively, a fish gelatin formulation comprising 5 g/dL fish gelatinfrom Sigma, 4 g/dL, ferric ammonium citrate, 6.7 mMN,N'-methylenebisacrylamide, 2 g/dL sorbitol, 0.033 g/dL Triton X-100,and 6.7 mg/mL enzyme (glucose oxidase or cholesterol oxidase or both)can be microdispensed onto the indicator electrode, exposed for 30seconds (6 mW/cm²), and developed for about 20 seconds in 0.3 g/dLaqueous hydrogen peroxide.

A solution of dimethylsiloxane-bisphenol A carbonate copolymer (0.1 g),dichloromethane (0.9 g), chlorobenzene (17.0 g), and diphenylether (3.0g) is then microdispensed directly over the crosslinked gelatin/enzymelayers to cover an area about three times the diameter of the catalyticelectrode. Finally, the wafer is cleaved to give combined glucose andcholesterol sensors. These devices are stored, as usual, dry.

6.5. ADENOSINE-5-TRIPHOSPHATE SENSOR

The preferred embodiment for an adenosine-5-triphosphate (ATP) sensorutilizes the base sensor as described previously for the glucose sensor.However, the wafer is scribed before the biolayers are applied asdescribed previously for the preferred embodiment of the combinedglucose and cholesterol sensor.

A 0.3 g/dL solution of N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane ina solvent mixture of ethanol and water (92:8 v/v) is spin-coated ontothe base sensor wafer and baked in an oven at 170° C. for 15 minutes.Photoformable fish gelatin (Norland NPR 29) is then mixed (1:4 v/v) withan aqueous solution containing glycerol kinase (Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 28IU/mg) and glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase (Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 84.4 IU/mg).The resulting mixture is then automatically microdispensed directly overthe catalytic iridium electrodes on the wafer. Sufficient material(10-100 nL) is deposited by this technique to allow for the coverage ofan area approximately three times the diameter of the catalytic iridiumelectrode. After drying at ambient conditions, the wafer is UV exposedthrough a mask and developed in a solution of 0.6 g/dL hydrogen peroxideto yield a self-aligned crosslinked gelatin/bienzyme layer of 0.6 μmthickness positioned directly over the catalytic iridium electrode. Thewafer is then washed and cleaved into individual sensors. These devicesare stored dry.

6.6. ALTERNATIVE EMBODIMENT OF AN ADENOSINE-5-TRIPHOSPHATE SENSOR

Yet another embodiment of the adenosine-5-triphosphate (ATP) sensorutilizes the base sensor as described previously for the glucose sensor.However, the wafer is partially diced before the biolayers are appliedas described, supra.

A 0 3 g/dL solution of N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane ina solvent mixture of ethanol and water (92:8 v/v) is spin-coated ontothe wafer and baked in an oven at 170° C. for 15 minutes. A film forminglatex (Elvace 40711-00, Reichhold) is then mixed (1:1 v/v) with anaqueous solution of glycerol kinase (Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 28 IU/mg),glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase (Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 84.4 IU/mg), andglutaraldehyde (2 mM). The resultant mixture is microdispensed directlyover the catalytic iridium electrodes on the wafer. Sufficient material(10-100 nL) is deposited by this technique to allow for the coverage ofan area about twice the diameter of the catalytic iridium electrode.After drying, the partially diced wafer is then washed and cleaved intoindividual sensors. These devices are stored dry.

6.7. CREATININE SENSOR

The preferred embodiment of a creatinine sensor utilizes the base sensordescribed previously for the glucose sensor. The fabrication of thebiolayers is different, however.

A 0.3 g/dL solution of N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane ina solvent mixture of ethanol and water (92:8 v/v) is spin-coated on thewafer and baked in an oven at 170° C for 15 minutes. Photoformable fishgelatin (Norland NPR 29) is then mixed (1:4 v/v) with an aqueoussolution of creatinine amidohydrolase (Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 2.29 IU/mg) andsarcosine oxidase (Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 4.9 IU/mg). The mixture ismicrodispensed directly over the catalytic iridium electrodes on thewafer. Sufficient material (10-100 nL) is deposited by this technique toallow for the coverage of an area about three times the diameter of thecatalytic iridium electrode. After drying, the wafer is UV exposedthrough a mask and developed in a solution of 0.6 g/dL hydrogen peroxideto yield a self-aligned cross-linked gelatin/bienzyme layer of 0.6 μmthickness positioned directly over the catalytic iridium electrode.

The film-forming latex (poly(vinyl acetate-co-vinyl alcohol), Reichhold)is mixed (1:1 v/v) with an aqueous solution of creatine amidinohydrolase(Toyobo 15 mg/mL; 12.8 IU/mg). This mixture is automaticallymicrodispensed directly over the patterned gelatin layers alreadypresent on the wafer. Sufficient material (10-100 nL) is deposited toensure complete coverage of an area about twice the diameter of thegelatin layers.

After drying the previously scribed wafer is then washed and cleavedinto individual sensors. These devices are stored dry.

6.8. CREATINE SENSOR

The preferred embodiment of a creatine sensor is exactly the same asthat for the creatinine sensor except that the enzyme creatinineamidohydrolase is omitted from the initial gelatin layer.

6.9. BLOOD UREA NITROGEN (BUN) SENSOR

A silicon wafer with a topical layer of silicon dioxide which hadpreviously been cleaned scrupulously with a mixture of concentratedsulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide is placed into a plasma depositionsystem and layers of titanium (0.1 μm) and silver (0.5 μm) are sputteredconsecutively onto the wafer surface. The silver-titanium bilayer isthen processed to localize it to a region which in the final device actsas the ammonium ion sensor. This process is achieved by a standardlithographic technique in which the wafer is spin-coated with positiveresist (Shipley AZ 1370 SF). After UV exposure of the photoresistthrough a mask and development (Shipley AZ 351), the exposed silver isremoved by an aqueous solution of ferric nitrate (0.9 mM) as theetchant. The underlying titanium layer is then processed by means of thesame photolithographic steps, but using an aqueous mixture of nitricacid (3.9M) and hydrofluoric acid (0.78M) is used as the etchant.N-methylpyrrolidone solvent is then used to remove the remainingphotoresist to expose the required octagonal silver structures (widthabout 150 μm).

To passivate the signal lines a photo-definable polyimide (DuPont 2703)is spin-coated onto the wafer. Once the wafer is UV exposed anddeveloped with a solvent mixture of butyrolactone and xylene (6:4 v/v),the polymer is baked in an oven at 350° C. for 30 minutes under an inertatmosphere and left to cool to 150° C. before removal.

The silver is then chloridized by dipping the entire wafer into anaqueous solution of potassium dichromate (12 mM) and hydrochloric acid(60 mM). Over these patterned silver chloride electrodes is placed anammonium ion sensitive membrane. The membrane material is made bydissolving low molecular weight PVC (Sigma) and high molecular weightcarboxylated PVC (Type Geon, Goodrich) (1:1 w/w) in a solvent system ofcyclohexanone, propiophenone, and N-methylpyrrolidone (1:1:1 v/v/v) to atotal solids content of 10 g/dL of solution. Dissolution is accomplishedby heating the mixture at 70° C. for 30 minutes. To this mixture theplasticizer tris(2-ethylhexyl)phosphate (Fluka) is added, to provide atotal solids content of 35 g/dL. The resulting mixture is then allowedto cool to 45° C. and nonactine (Fluka) is added in the amountequivalent to 2 percent of the total solids in the mixture. At roomtemperature, 10-100 nL of this final material is microdispensed ontoeach of the silver chloride indicator electrodes on the wafer,overlapping on all sides by at least about 30 μm. Curing is accomplishedby placing the wafer on a 60° C. hotplate for 30 minutes. This processyields a stable, rugged structure having a thickness of about 15 μm. Thewafer is then washed and partially diced, as described previously abovefor the preferred embodiment of a combined glucose and cholesterolsensor.

Urease (30 mg; 90 IU/mg Sigma) is dissolved in deionized water (60 mg).To this solution is added 1.0 mg of sorbitol and 150 mg of poly(vinylacetate-co-ethylene) latex (type ELVACE 40711-00, Reichhold). Aftermixing, 30 mg of a 1% aqueous glutaraldehyde solution is added, and theresulting mixture is stirred. This mixture is then microdispensed(10-100 nL) over each of the ammonium ion sensitive membranes ensuringthat the latex mixture overlapped on all sides by at least 30 μm. Thefinal membrane has a thickness of about 50 μm. The wafer is then cleavedto yield individual sensors and stored dry.

6.10. MICRODISPENSABLE MEMBRANE FORMULATIONS

The following formulations can be loaded into a microsyringe assemblyfor the purpose of establishing ion-sensitive layers in a controllablemanner. The microsyringe assembly is preferably equipped with 25 to 30gauge needles (EFD Inc.) having an internal diameter of 150 μm and anexternal diameter of 300 μm. Typically, the microsyringe needle, whichincludes an elongated member and a needle tip, is made of a metallicmaterial, like stainless steel. As mentioned elsewhere in thisspecification, additional layers may be coated onto the needle to changeits surface properties. Additionally, other materials such as syntheticpolymers may also be employed in manufacturing the main body of theneedle, itself. The inventors have found that, depending on thepretreatment of the electrode surface and the volume amount of fluidapplied, membrane layers of a thickness ranging from about 1 to about200 μm can be obtained consistently.

    ______________________________________                                        6.10.1. POTASSIUM ION MEMBRANE                                                ______________________________________                                        Weigh:                                                                        3.55 g NMP (N-Methylpyrrolidone)                                              2.67 g Propiophenone                                                          2.67 g Cyclohexanone                                                          4.00 g Bis(2-ethylhexyl) sebacate                                             ______________________________________                                    

Combine these ingredients in a pyrex beaker and mix thoroughly,preferably with the aid of a magnetic stirrer. Add 1.33 g PVC. Heatsolution to 100° C. and leave 1 hour. Add 159 mg valinomycin and stir 15minutes. Allow to cool to 40° C. and transfer to storage vessel.

    ______________________________________                                        6.10.2. CHLORIDE ION MEMBRANE                                                 ______________________________________                                        Weigh:                                                                        0.95 g Cyclohexanone                                                          1.77 g Propiophenone                                                          0.47 g 5-Phenyl-1-pentanone                                                   ______________________________________                                    

Combine these ingredients in a pyrex beaker and mix thoroughly,preferably with the aid of a magnetic stirrer. Add 0.47 g PVC SigmaP-9401 and stir slowly. Heat solution to 100° C. and leave for 30 min.Add 0.20 g Triodecylmethyl ammonium chloride and 0.20 g KemamineBQ-9702C fatty amine. Stir for 15 mins with heating. Allow to cool to40° C. and transfer to storage vessel.

    ______________________________________                                               6.10.3. SODIUM MEMBRANE                                                ______________________________________                                               Weigh:                                                                        3.81 g NMP                                                                    2.86 g Propiophenone                                                          2.86 g Cyclohexanone                                                          4.00 g Tris (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate                                   ______________________________________                                    

Combine these ingredients in a pyrex beaker and mix thoroughly,preferably with the aid of a magnetic stirrer. Add 1.71 g of PVP (Geon137). Heat Solution to 100° C. Add 100 mg Methyl Monensin, dissolved in1.0 g cyclohexanone. Allow to cool to 40° C. and transfer to storagevessel.

    ______________________________________                                        6.10.4. AMMONIUM MEMBRANE                                                     ______________________________________                                        Weigh:                                                                        1.38 g NMP                                                                    1.04 g Cyclohexanone                                                          1.04 g Propiophenone                                                          1.65 g Tris (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate                                          ______________________________________                                    

Combine these ingredients in a pyrex beaker and mix thoroughly,preferably with the aid of a magnetic stirrer. Add 0.281 g PVC Geon 137and 0.545 g of PVC Sigma P-9401. Heat solution to 100° C. and leave 1hour. Add 50 mg of nonactin and stir 15 mins. Allow to cool to 40° C.and transfer to storage vessel.

    ______________________________________                                        6.10.5. UREASE MEMBRANE                                                       ______________________________________                                        A urease solution is prepared by combining:                                   0.29 g of 10% ambergum solution                                               0.30 g of 10% BSA solution                                                    0.11 g of urease.                                                             ______________________________________                                    

The ingredients are mixed in a glass vial and swirled gently for 15mins. The solution is allowed to stand for 24 h. After this period, thesolution is centrifuged. The supernatant urease solution is decanted andsaved.

The urease membrane formulation is then obtained by combining:

0.028 g of the urease solution prepared above.

0.2851 g Elvace

0.0384 g deionized water.

The ingredients are mixed and swirled gently in a glass vial for severalminutes. Then, ambergum solution (0.03 g) is added, followed by 1%glutaraldehyde solution (0.011 g). The resulting mixture is swirled for5 mins. The formulation is allowed to stand for about 0.5 h before use.The urease membrane is then established on top of an ammonium ionsensitive membrane.

6.10.6. pH MEMBRANE

A formulation suitable for establishing a pH sensitive membrane isprepared by combining equal volumes of cyclohexanone and propiophenone.To 1.5 g of this solvent mixture is added, with stirring and gentlywarming: sodium tetraphenylborate (5 mg), tridodecyl amine (75 mg),dibutyl sebacate (620 mg), and, lastly, 300 mg of high-molecular weightHMW PVC. Also, o-nitrophenyloctylether (620 mg) may be used in place ofthe dibutyl sebacate. The resulting composition is mixed thoroughlybefore use.

6.10.7. CALCIUM ION MEMBRANE

To 2.75 g of a 50/50 cyclohexanone/propiophenone solvent mixture isadded p-tetraoctylphenylphosphate diester, calcium salt (110 mg). Themixture is stirred and warmed gently to help dissolve the calcium salt.The mixture is then filtered through a 0.45 μm PTFE filter. To the warmfiltrate is then added, with stirring, 580 mg of HMW PVC (or,alternatively, 200 mg COO carboxylated PVC and 380 mg HMW PVC). After asolution is obtained, n-dioctylphenylphosphonate (1300 mg) is added. Themixture is stirred and warmed gently, as needed, until a solution isobtained.

6.11. PRETREATMENT OF WAFER SURFACE AND DEPOSITION OF SELECTED MEMBRANES

The following conditions are used to pretreat a wafer containing severalhundred base sensors with a patterned polyimide passivation layer. Thewafer is first etched with an argon plasma, followed by a CF₄ plasma. Asdescribed previously, the degree of hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity maybe varied by adjusting the power and gas flow, or by changing the timeof exposure. In this particular example, the treated surface is quitehydrophobic.

    ______________________________________                                        Equipment:          Tegal plasma etcher                                       Temperature:        16° C.                                             Argon Plasma                                                                  Flow:               14.4 sccm                                                 Process pressure:   100 mT                                                    Forward power:      200 W                                                     Reflected power:    less than 10 W                                            Time:               30 secs                                                   CF.sub.4 plasma                                                               CF.sub.4 supply at 17 PSIG                                                    Flow:               66 sccm                                                   Process pressure:   800 mT                                                    Forward power:      30 W                                                      Reflected power:    less than 10 W                                            Time:               30 secs.                                                  ______________________________________                                    

After treatment, the wafer is washed with deionized water and is bakedover a hot plate to ensure sufficient surface dehydration. The wafer isthen mounted on a film frame with dicing tape backing and diced asdescribed previously to provide properly aligned individual sensors.

The microdispensing system is then used to deposit membranes, with 1 ormore drops being deposited to form each membrane. The urea layer isdispensed over the previously dispensed NH₄ ⁺ membrane. Preferably, themicrodispensing process is carried out under a controlled low humidityenvironment.

    ______________________________________                                        Membrane   Preferred Thickness                                                                          Minimum Thickness                                   ______________________________________                                        K.sup.+     40 ± 20                                                                             μm    20 μm                                        Na.sup.+    30 ± 10                                                                             μm    20 μm                                        NH.sub.4.sup.+                                                                            15 ± 5                                                                              μm    10 μm                                        Cl          40 ± 20                                                                             μm    20 μm                                        pH          40 ± 20                                                                             μm    20 μm                                        Ca.sup.++   40 ± 20                                                                             μm    20 μm                                        Urease enzyme                                                                             45 ± 15                                                                             μm    30 μm                                        ______________________________________                                    

It should be noted that other methods, known to those skilled in theart, exist for changing the surface free energy of a planar struture(See, for example, Wolf, S. and Tauber, R. N. in Processing Technology,Vol. 1, Lattice Press (1986) or Moss, S. J. and Ledwith, A. in TheChemistry of the Semiconductor Industry, Blackie (1987)). These methodsinclude, but are not limited to, wet etching, dry (plasma) etching,plasma polymerization and deposition, particle beam bombardment,reactive ion etching, corona treatment, microwave, ultraviolet,Langmuir-Blodgett film coating, and covalent chemical modifiction. Also,any suitable combination of these techniques may be utilized to obtainthe desired surface free energy.

Generally, the information gained from measuring the contact angle isused to assess the quality of the surface treatment. The membranethickness measurements provide an indication of the expected performanceof the finished sensor (i.e., wet-up behavior and Nernstian response).

It is apparent to those skilled in the art that variations andmodifications in the microfabrication processes disclosed herein and inthe biosensors, themselves, can be readily conceived in view of thepresent invention. Accordingly, while a number of preferred embodimentsof the invention have been described, the invention is not limitedthereby but only by the following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A wafer level microfabricated biosensorcomprising:(a) a base sensor; (b) a permselective layer, superimposedover at least a portion of said base sensor, having a thicknesssufficient to exclude substantially molecules with a molecular weight ofabout 120 or more while allowing the free permeation of molecules with amolecular weight of about 50 or less; an (c) a biolayer superimposedover at least a portion of said permselective layer, comprising (i) asufficient amount of a bioactive molecule capable of selectivelyinteracting with a particular analyte species, and (ii) a support matrixin which said bioactive molecule is incorporated, which matrix isderived from the group consisting of a photoformable proteinaceousmixture, a film-forming latex, and combinations thereof and throughwhich matrix said analyte species may freely permeate and interact withsaid bioactive molecule.
 2. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 1 inwhich said permselective layer comprises a polymer film.
 3. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 1 in which said permselective layercomprises a heat-treated film of a silane compound having the formulaR'_(n) Si(OR)_(4-n), in which n is an integer selected from the groupconsisting of 0, 1, and 2; R' is a hydrocarbon radical comprising 3-12carbon atoms; and R is a hydrogen radical or a lower alkyl radicalcomprising 1-4 carbon atoms.
 4. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 1which further comprises an electrolyte layer interposed between saidbase sensor and said permselective layer.
 5. The microfabricatedbiosensor of claim 4 in which said permselective layer substantiallyencloses said electrolyte layer.
 6. The microfabricated biosensor ofclaim 1 which further comprises an analyte attenuation layer,superimposed over a substantial portion of said biolayer, having athickness sufficient to attenuate the transport therethrough of analytespecies with a molecular weight of about 120 or more.
 7. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 6 in which said analyte attenuationlayer comprises a polymer film.
 8. The microfabricated biosensor ofclaim 6 which further comprises a photoresist cap superimposed over saidanalyte attentuation layer.
 9. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 2in which a sufficient amount of an ionophore is incorporated in saidpolymer film.
 10. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 1 in which saidbase sensor comprises an electrochemical transducer.
 11. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 10 in which said electrochemicaltransducer is amperometric.
 12. The microfabricated biosensor of claim10 in which said electrochemical transducer is potentiometric.
 13. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 10 in which said electrochemicaltransducer comprises a noble late transition metal electrode.
 14. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 1 in which said base sensor comprisesan amperometric electrochemical transducer comprising an indicatorelectrode which includes an electrocatalyst selected from the groupconsisting of carbon, platinum, gold, silver, rhodium, iridium,ruthenium, mercury, palladium, and osmium.
 15. The microfabricatedbiosensor of claim 13 in which said electrochemical transducer furthercomprises a reference electrode which includes an electrocatalyst metalselected from the group consisting of silver, gold, and platinum. 16.The microfabricated biosensor of claim 13 in which said electrochemicaltransducer further comprises a silver/silver halide reference electrode.17. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 3 in which said silanecompound is selected from the group consisting of3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane,N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane,3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,N-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane,3-isocyanatopropyltriethoxysilane,10-aminodecyltrimethoxysilane,11-aminoundecyltrimethoxysilane,2-[p-{N-(2-aminoethyl)aminomethyl}phenyl]ethyltrimethoxysilane,n-propyltrimethoxysilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane,diethylphosphatoethyltriethoxysilane,N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)aminopropyltriethoxysilane,3-chloropropyltriethoxysilane, and mixtures thereof.
 18. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 3 in which said silane compound isselected from the group consisting of tetramethyl orthosilicate,tetraethyl orthosilicate, tetrapropyl orthosilicate, tetrabutylorthosilicate, and mixtures thereof.
 19. The microfabricated biosensorof claim 2 or 7 in which said polymer film comprises a polymericsubstance selected from the group consisting of polyurethane, poly(vinylchloride), poly(tetrafluoroethylene), cellulose acetate, cellulosenitrate, silicone rubber, derivatives, and mixtures thereof.
 20. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 9 in which said ionophore is selectedfrom the group consisting of crown ethers, trialkylamines, phosphateesters, valinomycin, nonactin, monensin, methylmonensin, and mixtures ofmonensin and methylmonensin.
 21. The microfabricated biosensor of claim9 in which said ionophore is a quaternary ammonium halide.
 22. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 2 or 7 in which said polymer filmcomprises a copolymer of a siloxane compound and a nonsiloxane compound.23. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 22 in which said copolymer isselected from the group consisting of dimethylsiloxane-alkene oxide,tetramethyldisiloxane-divinylbenzene, tetramethyldisiloxane-ethylene,dimethylsiloxane-silphenylene, dimethylsiloxane-silphenylene oxide,dimethylsiloxane-methylstyrene, and dimethylsiloxanebisphenol Acarbonate, and mixtures thereof.
 24. The microfabricated biosensor ofclaim 22 in which said copolymer is dimethylsiloxane-bisphenol Acarbonate.
 25. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 1 in which saidphotoformable proteinaceous mixture comprises: (i) a proteinaceoussubstance; (ii) an effective amount of a photosensitizer uniformlydispersed in said proteinaceous substance; and (iii) water.
 26. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 25 in which said proteinaceoussubstance is selected from the group consisting of albumin, casein,gamma-globulin, collagen, derivatives, and mixtures thereof.
 27. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 25 in which said proteinaceoussubstance is fish gelatin.
 28. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 25in which said photosensitizer is selected from the group consisting offerric chloride, ferric ammonium citrate, ferric potassium citrate,ferric ammonium oxalate, ferric sodium oxalate, ferric potassiumoxalate, ferric oxalate, potassium dichromate, and ammonium dichromate.29. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 25 in which saidphotoformable proteinaceous mixture further comprises aporosity-altering substance selected from the group consisting ofpolyhydroxylated compounds, salts, and mixtures thereof.
 30. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 1 in which said film-forming latexcomprises an aqueous emulsion of a polymer or copolymer derived fromsynthetic or natural sources.
 31. The microfabricated biosensor of claim1 in which said film-forming latex further comprises a porosity-alteringsubstance selected from the group consisting of polyhydroxylatedcompounds, salts, and mixtures thereof.
 32. The microfabricatedbiosensor of claim 1 in which said film-forming latex further comprisesa crosslinking agent.
 33. A wafer level microfabricated biosensorcomprising:(a) a base sensor; (b) a permselective layer, superimposedover at least a portion of said base sensor, having a thicknesssufficient to exclude substantially molecules with a molecular weight ofabout 120 or more while allowing the free permeation of molecules with amolecular weight of about 50 or less; and (c) a biolayer superimposedover at least a portion of said permselective layer and said basesensor, comprising (i) a sufficient amount of a bioactive moleculecapable of selectively interacting with a particular analyte species,and (ii) a support matrix derived from a photoformable proteinaceousmixture, in which said bioactive molecule is incorporated, and throughwhich matrix said analyte species may freely permeate and interact withsaid bioactive molecule.
 34. A wafer level microfabricated biosensorcomprising:(a) a base sensor; (b) a permselective layer, superimposedover at least a portion of said base sensor, having a thicknesssufficient to exclude substantially molecules with a molecular weight ofabout 120 or more while allowing the free permeation of molecules with amolecular weight of about 50 or less; and (c) a biolayer superimposedover at least a portion of said permselective layer and said basesensor, comprising (i) a sufficient amount of a bioactive moleculecapable of selectively interacting with a particular analyte species,and (ii) a support matrix derived from a film-forming latex, in whichsaid bioactive molecule is incorporated, and through which matrix saidanalyte species may freely permeate and interact with said bioactivemolecule.
 35. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 1, 4, 6, 33, or 34in which said bioactive molecule is an enzyme selected from the groupconsisting of glucose oxidase, glucose dehydrogenase, NADH oxidase,uricase, urease, creatininase, sarcosine oxidase, creatinase, creatinekinase, creatine amidohydrolase, cholesterol esterase, cholesteroloxidase, glycerol kinase, hexokinase, glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase,lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, alanine transaminase,aspartate transaminase, amylase, lipase, esterase, gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase, L-glutamate oxidase, pyruvate oxidase, diaphorase,bilirubin oxidase, and their mixtures.
 36. The microfabricated biosensorof claim 1, 4, 6, 33, or 34 in which said bioactive molecule is selectedfrom the group consisting of ionophores, cofactors, polypeptides,proteins, glycoproteins, enzymes, immunoglobulins, antibodies, antigens,lectins, neurochemical receptors, oligonucleotides, polynucleotides,molecules of DNA, molecules of RNA, active fragments or subunits orsingle strands of the preceding molecules, and mixtures thereof.
 37. Themicrofabricated biosensor of claim 1, 4, 6, 33, or 34 in which saidbioactive molecule is glucose oxidase.
 38. The microfabricated biosensorof claim 1, 4, 6, 33, or 34 in which said bioactive molecule is urease.39. A wafer level microfabricated biosensor comprising:(a) a basesensor; (b) a permselective layer comprising a heat-treated film of asilane compound having the formula R'_(n) Si(OR)_(4-n), in which n is 0,1 or 2; R' is a hydrocarbon radical comprising 3-12 carbon atoms; and Ris a hydrogen radical or a lower alkyl radical comprising 1-4 carbonatoms, said permselective layer being superimposed over at least aportion of said base sensor and having a thickness sufficient to excludesubstantially molecules with a molecular weight of about 120 or morewhile allowing the free permeation of molecules with a molecular weightof about 50 or less; and (c) a topmost layer comprising a sufficientamount of an immobilized ligand receptor.
 40. The microfabricatedbiosensor of claim 39 in which n is an integer with a value of 1 or 2.41. A wafer level microfabricated biosensor comprising:(a) a basesensor; (b) a permselective layer comprising a polymer film,superimposed over at least a portion of said base sensor and having athickness sufficient to exclude substantially molecules with a molecularweight of about 120 or more while allowing the free permeation ofmolecules with a molecular weight of about 50 or less; (c) a photoresistlayer comprising a photoformable proteinaceous mixture, superimposedover a substantial portion of said permselective layer; and (d) atopmost layer comprising a sufficient amount of an immobilized ligandreceptor.
 42. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 41 which furthercomprises an electrolyte layer interposed between said base sensor andsaid permselective layer.
 43. The microfabricated biosensor of claim 39,or 41 which said ligand receptor is selected from the group consistingof ionophores, confactors, polypeptides, proteins, glycoproteins,enzymes, immunoglobulins, antibodies, antigens, lectins, neurochemicalreceptors, oligonucleotides, polynucleotides, molecules of DNA,molecules of RNA, active fragments or subunits or single strands of thepreceding molecules, and mixtures thereof.
 44. A wafer comprising:(a) asubstantially planar substrate; and (b) an array of unit cells havinguniform dimensions established on said substrate, each unit cellcomprising a microfabricated biosensor of claim 1, 4, 6, 33, 34, 39, or41.
 45. A biolayer sensitive to a particular analyte speciescomprising:(a) a sufficient amount of a bioactive molecule capable ofselectively interacting with a particular analyte species; and (b) asupport matrix in which said bioactive molecule is incorporated, whichmatrix is derived from the group consisting of a photoformableproteinaceous mixture, a film-forming latex, and combinations thereofand through which said analyte species may freely permeate and interactwith said bioactive molecule.
 46. A solid object having an outersurface, an inner surface, or both, over at least a portion of whichsurface is established a biolayer sensitive to a particular analytespecies comprising: (i) a sufficient amount of a bioactive moleculecapable of selectively interacting with a particular analyte species;and (ii) a support matrix in which said bioactive molecule isincorporated, which matrix is derived from the group consisting of aphotoformable proteinaceous mixture, a film-forming latex, andcombinations thereof and through which said analyte species may freelypermeate and interact with said bioactive molecule.
 47. The solid objectof claim 46 which comprises part of a diagnostic system.
 48. The solidobject of claim 46 which comprises part of a bioreactor.
 49. Apermselective layer comprising a heat-treated film of a silane compoundhaving a formula R'_(n) Si(OR)_(4-n) in which n is an integer selectedfrom the group consisting of 0, 1, and 2; R' is a hydrocarbon radicalcomprising 3-12 carbon atoms; and R is a lower alkyl radical comprising1-4 carbon atoms,said layer having a thickness sufficient to excludesubstantially molecules with a molecular weight of about 120 or morewhile allowing the free permeation of molecules with a molecular weightof about 50 or less.
 50. An analyte attenuation layer comprising a filmof a siloxane-nonsiloxane copolymer and which film has a thicknesssufficient to attenuate the transport therethrough of analyte specieshaving a molecular weight of about 120 or more.
 51. The analyteattenuation layer of claim 50 in which said copolymer is selected fromthe group consisting of dimethylsiloxane-alkene oxide,tetramethyldisiloxane-divinylbenzene, tetramethyldisiloxane-ethylene,dimethylsiloxane-silphenylene, dimethylsiloxane-silphenylene oxide,dimethylsiloxane-methylstyrene, dimethylsiloxane-bisphenol A carbonate,and mixtures thereof.